State 1
Reference State

The Reference State (1) describes the range of vegetative communities that occur on the Sands 22-25" PZ ecological site where the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes is mostly intact. The Reference State developed under the combined influences of climatic conditions, periodic fire activity, grazing by large herbivores, and impacts from small mammals and insects. High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production and overall soil quality.

The Reference State includes three community phases which are the Reference Community (1.1), the At-Risk Community (1.2) and the Excessive Litter Community (1.3), The Reference Community serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or closely mimicked by management practices. The At-Risk Community results from management actions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community. The Excessive Litter Community occurs when herbivory and fire are eliminated from the landscape.

Community 1.1
Reference Community

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference or Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Little Bluestem (Andropogon hallii-Calamovilfa longifolia-Schizachyrium scoparium) Community (1.1). This plant community serves as a description of the native plant community that occurs on the site when the historic disturbance regimes are intact or are closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and to fire and grazing events. This site developed with grazing by large herbivores and is well suited for grazing by domestic livestock.

This plant community consists chiefly of warm-season, tall- and midgrasses. Sand bluestem, prairie sandreed, and little bluestem are the dominant grasses. Grasses of secondary importance include Indiangrass, switchgrass, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, blue grama, and hairy grama. Sedges occur in the understory. The forb population is diverse. Leadplant, western sandcherry, and rose are common shrubs. This the potential vegetative composition is 80 to 90 percent grasses, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 1 to 5 percent shrubs by weight.

Natural fire played a significant role in the succession of this site by limiting the extent of shrubs. Wildfires have been actively controlled in recent times, facilitating tree and shrub encroachment. This plant community can be found on areas that are managed with prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, and may be found on areas receiving occasional periods of short-term rest.

This resilient community is well adapted to Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. Plant diversity promotes strong tolerance to drought, site and soil stability, a functional hydrologic cycle, and a high degree of biotic integrity. These factors create a suitable environment for a healthy and sustainable plant community.

Community 1.2
At-Risk Community

The At-Risk or Sand Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Switchgrass (Andropogon hallii-Schizachyrium scoparium-Panicum virgatum) Community (1.2) develops with moderate continuous season-long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery time. Most of the palatable plants of the Reference Community (1.1) are present, but production from these grasses is reduced. Warm-season tallgrasses are the dominant component in the plant community. Indiangrass is present at trace amounts or is missing from the plant community, while sand bluestem, needle and thread, and porcupinegrass are reduced. This community has higher overall production of shrubs as compared to the Reference Community and excessive removal of forage will cause a further increase in shrubs.

Sand bluestem, little bluestem, switchgrass and prairie sandreed are the dominant grasses. Grasses or grass-like plants of secondary importance include blue grama, hairy grama. The forb component remains diverse and leadplant, western sandcherry, and rose are the dominant shrubs. The potential vegetative composition is 75 to 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 5 to 15 percent forbs, and 5 to 10 percent shrubs.

Overall, plants have strong, healthy root systems allowing production to increase dramatically with favorable precipitation. The community is drought resistant due to the remaining tall- and midgrass diversity. These warm-season grasses cure well for winter forage stockpiling. Soil health is near optimum. This plant community has slightly less litter as compared to the Reference Community. This plant community is somewhat resistant to change with continued moderate grazing. The resiliency of the plant community is dependent upon the type of management system employed and the intensity and duration of any disturbance.

Management that includes adequate growing season recovery time will move the plant community to the Reference Community while increased disturbance, such as drought or heavy grazing, will cause further loss of warm-season tall- and midgrasses and transition to the Shortgrass Sod State (4). Seasonal grazing during the summer will cause the community to transition to the Native/Invaded Grass State (3).

Community 1.3
Excessive Litter Community

The Excessive Litter or Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needlegrass-(Andropogon hallii-Calamovilfa longifolia-Hesperostipa) Community (1.3) develops when the natural disturbances of livestock grazing and fire have been removed from the land for a prolonged period of time (more than five years). This plant community is characterized by a high amount of litter covering the soil with widely dispersed mature plants with very few tillers resulting in low vegetative reproduction.

Plant litter accumulates rapidly as this community first develops. As the undisturbed duff layer deepens, infiltration of the precipitation is interrupted and evaporation increases significantly, simulating drought-like conditions. Typically, bunchgrasses develop dead centers and rhizomatous grasses form small colonies due to a lack of tiller stimulation. Pedestalling is usually evident. As non-use continues, plant frequency and production decrease. As grazing and fire continue to be excluded from the with continued exclusion of livestock grazing and fire, litter levels will increase to the point that few plants remain. As the accumulated litter decays, large areas of bare ground will develop and non-native grasses and will begin to invade the plant community. This community is very vulnerable to encroachment by eastern redcedar.

Sand bluestem, prairie sandreed, needle and thread, and porcupinegrass are the dominant grasses. Grasses of secondary importance include little bluestem, switchgrass, and sand lovegrass, The other grasses present vary with the length of use exclusion. The dominant forbs typically include Cuman ragweed and spiny phlox. The shrub community typically includes rose, western sandcherry, and leadplant. The potential vegetative composition is 85 to 95 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 2 to 10 percent forbs, and 2 to 5 percent shrubs.

As compared to the Reference Community (1.1), plant diversity has decreased, and native plants tend to occur in individual colonies. This plant community has a high amount of litter covering the soil between widely dispersed mature plants. Soil erosion is low. Infiltration and runoff initially are not significantly different than the Reference Community. As non-use continues, the litter layer thickens, and moisture is held in the litter decreasing infiltration. The health and vigor of native, warm-season, tall- and midgrasses declines as the litter layer thickens.

This plant community will change rapidly when grazing by domestic livestock or fire are reintroduced but the longer the period of non-use, the more time is required for the return to the initial community. If the intensity and duration of the disturbance is inadequate, the plant community will rapidly return to the Excessive Litter Community. As non-use continues, non-native cool-season grasses will enter the plant community and if the period of non-use is extensive (ten or more years), the plant community will transition to the Native/Invaded Grass State.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Continuous, season-long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods will move the Reference Community (1.1) to the At- Risk Community (1.2). Heavy grazing accelerates this process.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Prolonged (greater than five years) absence of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will move the Reference Community (1.1) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.3).

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

At-Risk Community (1.2) can return to the Reference Community (1.1) with implementation of prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods. Prescribed burning may accelerate this process.

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Prolonged (more than five years) absence of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will move the At-Risk Community (1.2) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.3).

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory which includes prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods and fire will return the Excessive Litter Community (1.3) to the Reference Community (1.1). If grazing and fire were absent for extensive periods of time (more than ten years), their reintroduction will move the plant community to the At-Risk Community (1.2) and several additional years of prescribed grazing will be needed for return to the Reference Community.

Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory which includes prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods and fire will return the Excessive Litter Community (1.3) to the At- Risk Community (1.1).

State 2
Eroded State

The Eroded State (2) can be reached from any plant community in the Reference State (1), Native/Invaded Grass State (3), the Shortgrass Sod State (4), or the Sodbusted State (6). This state is the result of heavy disturbance, which is usually frequent and severe defoliation. The Eroded State can also occur with vehicle traffic, livestock trailing or other heavy disturbances. Long-term drought or dormant season wildfire coupled with the heavy disturbance will accelerate the move to the Eroded State. The Eroded State (2) includes the Blowout Community (2.1) and the Early Seral Community (2.2).

Community 2.1
Active Blowout Community

The Active Blowout or Blowout Grass-Sandhill Muhly (Redfieldia flexuosa-Muhlenbergia pungens) Community (2.1) can be reached from any plant community in Reference State (1), Shortgrass Sod State (3), Invaded Woody State (4), or Sodbusted State (5) in the presence of significant disturbances resulting in frequent defoliation, such as heavy grazing or repeated wildfire, or other heavy land disturbance. The Active Blowout Community is characterized by large areas of blowing sand which results in movement, and possibly enlargement, of the blowout. Under these conditions, evaporation is extremely high and transpiration by the few existing plants is also high. The bare ground, lack of litter and low plant density all contribute to high evaporation and transpiration. This community is kept in a very low successional stage by the steep side slopes of the blowout, blowing sand, and lack of soil development. Sandhill muhly and blowout grass are present due to their drought tolerance and ability to withstand burial by blowing sand.

Community 2.2
Early Seral Community

As succession progresses, the Blowout Community (2.1) moves toward the Early Seral or Blowout grass-Sandhill Muhly-Sand Bluestem (Redfieldia flexuosa-Muhlenbergia pungens-Andropogon hallii) Community (2.2). Sandhill muhly, blowout grass, and sand bluestem are the earliest colonizers. Annual grasses such as sandbur are common. Lemon scurfpea, Texas croton, and common sunflower are frequent forbs. Prairie sandreed, hairy grama, and rose slowly become present the plant community and eventually other warm-season tall- and midgrasses will enter the plant community.

Disturbances such as heavy grazing or wildfire will return the community to the Active Blowout Community. Long-term (greater than 10 years) prescribed grazing with incorporation of adequate, growing season recovery periods (deferment) will move the plant community toward the previous state. The slope, aspect, and size of the area, as well as the relative abundance of perennial plants, will influence the amount of time required for this restoration.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

The Active Blowout Community (2.1) can be moved to the Early Seral Community (2.2) by removing the long term, concentrated animal impact or other existing disturbance and replacing it with prescribed grazing that incorporates concentrated short-term animal impact. This short-term animal impact can be achieved through activities such as feeding hay on the blowout. Establishment of vegetation may be accelerated by broadcast seeding a temporary cover crop prior to the removal of animal impact to provide cover to reduce wind erosion.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Continuous season long grazing or rotational grazing that does not include adequate growing season recovery time or other disturbance which causes defoliation without allowing time for the grasses to recover will return the Early Seral Community (2.2) to the Active Blowout Community (2.1).

State 3
Native/Invaded Grass State

The Native/Invaded Grass State (3) transitioned from the Reference State (1) and much of the native warm-season tall- and midgrass components have been replaced by warm-season shortgrasses and upland sedges and non-native, cool-season grasses have invaded the plant community. This State is the result of long-term grazing management that did not provide adequate recovery time for warm- season tall- and midgrasses and mid-statured cool-season grasses. The management that typically results in the Native/Invaded Grass State is heavy, continuous, grazing during the summer and fall months but heavy rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods can also cause this transition.

The loss of warm-season tall- and midgrasses negatively impacts energy flow and nutrient cycling and alters hydrologic function. Runoff is higher and infiltration is lower than the Reference State. The Native/Invaded Grass State includes the Native/Non-Native Grass Community (3.1).

Community 3.1
Native/Non-Native Grass Community

The Native/Non-Native Grass or Prairie Sandreed/Ragweed (Calamovilfa longifolia/Ambrosia psilostachya) Community (3.1) represents a transition from the Reference State (1) across an ecologic threshold. This community typically develops under historic heavy grazing with continued seasonal grazing beginning in early May. The plant community is a mixture of warm-season tallgrasses and cool-season grasses. As compared to the Reference Community (1.1), warm-season tall- and midgrass diversity is greatly reduced as most warm-season tall- and midgrasses are missing or are found only in trace amounts. Forbs and shrubs have increased as a proportion of the plant community. Non-native grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass or smooth brome, have invaded the plant community non-native grasses are often a subdominant group. The amount of ground cover is higher than expected due to the sod-forming nature of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome.

Prairie sandreed, Kentucky bluegrass or smooth brome, and sand dropseed are typically the dominant grasses. Other grasses present include blue grama, hairy grama, Scribner's rosettegrass, and needle and thread. Cuman ragweed is the dominant forb. Shrubs have increased in abundance; western snowberry and other shrubs not typically found in the Reference Community are the dominant shrub species. The potential vegetative composition is 60 to 75 percent grasses and grass- likes, 10 to 25 percent forbs, and 10 to 15 percent shrubs.

As compared to the Reference Community total annual production is reduced by 25 to 35 percent. Plant diversity is reduced. Litter is lower but soil erosion is low due to the sod-forming nature of the plant community. Infiltration and runoff are not greatly impacted due to the nature of the soils. This plant community is considered stable and is somewhat resistant to change but is a risk of transitioning to the Eroded State (2) with long- term drought or with heavy grazing. The plant community is moderately resilient, and its resiliency depends upon the intensity and duration of disturbances.

State 4
Shortgrass Sod State

The Shortgrass Sod State (4) transitioned from either the Reference State (1) or the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) and much of the native warm-season tall- and midgrass components have been replaced by warm-season shortgrasses and upland sedges. This state occurs with rotational grazing systems which include multiple grazing occupations that do not allow adequate growing season recovery time. The plant community is dominated by warm-season shortgrass, cool-season grass, and grass-likes.

The loss of warm-season tall- and midgrasses negatively impacts energy flow and nutrient cycling and alters hydrologic function. Runoff is higher and infiltration is lower than the Reference State. This state is resistant to change. The Shortgrass Sod State includes the Shortgrass Sod Community (4.1).

Community 4.1
Shortgrass Sod Community

The Shortgrass Sod or Blue Grama/Carex (Bouteloua gracilis-Carex) Community (4.1) develops from Reference State with rotational grazing systems which have multiple occupations accompanied with inadequate recovery time between occupations.

Blue grama is the dominant grass. Hairy grama, sedges, sand dropseed and needle and thread are also common in the plant community. Switchgrass, prairie sandreed, and sand bluestem may also be present. When entry into pastures is delayed until early to mid-June, Kentucky bluegrass or smooth brome will present. Cuman ragweed and prairie sunflower are common forbs. Rose and brittle pricklypear are common shrubs. Compared to the Reference Community (1.1) most warm-season tall- and midgrasses are substantially reduced while warm-season shortgrasses have significantly increased. Cuman ragweed, sedges, and rose have also increased as compared to the Reference Community. Plant diversity is significantly reduced.

This plant community resistant to change due to the low percentage of bare ground and the community is highly resilient with disturbances. Soil erosion is low. Hydrologic function is impaired due to a reduction in litter, increased runoff, and reduced infiltration.

State 5
Invaded Woody State

The Invaded Woody State (5) is the result of woody encroachment. Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet, the threshold to the Invaded Woody State has been crossed. Woody species are increasing due to the lack of prescribed fire, brush management, or other woody tree removal. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, reduce diversity of functional and structural groups, reduced forage production, and reduced soil quality. Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State toward a grass dominated state. If the Invaded Woody State transitioned from Eroded State (2), the Native/Invaded Grass State (3), the Shortgrass Sod State (4) or the Sodbusted State (6), the land cannot return to the Reference State (1) as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function had been too severely impacted prior to the woody encroachment to allow the return to the Reference State through woody species removal alone. The Invaded Woody State includes one community, the Invaded Woody Community (5.1).

Community 5.1
Invaded Woody Community

The Invaded Woody Community or Eastern Redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) Community (5.1) has at least 15 percent canopy cover consisting of trees generally 5 feet or taller. Encroaching trees are primarily eastern redcedar. Additional woody cover from deciduous trees and shrubs may be present. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern redcedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern redcedar can eventually dominate the site resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production, and which has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat. With long-term fire suppression, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will typically be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of coniferous species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a coniferous overstory.

Eastern redcedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.loesscanyonsburning group.com). Resprouting brush must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required.

This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase in relation the plant community from which this plant community originated. The hydrologic function is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is typically increased because of a lack of herbaceous cover and the rooting structure provided by the herbaceous species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.

State 6
Sodbusted State

The threshold to the Sodbusted State (6) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. If farming operations are suspended, the site can be seeded to native grasses and forms resulting in the Reseeded Native Grass Community (6.1), be seeded to a tame pasture forage mixture resulting in the Seeded Pasture Community (6.2) or be abandoned with no seeding which will result in the Natural Reclamation Community (6.3). Permanent alterations of the soil, plant community, and hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Community 6.1
Reseeded Native Grass Community

The Reseeded Native Grass Community (6.1) does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, fertility management, and past grazing management. Many of the areas seeded to native grasses before the 1970's are now dominated by little bluestem.

Native rangeland and grasslands seeded to native species are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur.

Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, and grass species seeded. Prescribed grazing including appropriate utilization levels, adequate growing-season recovery periods, and timing of grazing that favor the productivity, health, and vigor of the seeded species is required to maintain this community. Periodic prescribed burning and brush management may also be needed.

Community 6.2
Seeded Pasture Community

The Seeded Pasture Community (6.2) does not contain native remnants and varies considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment.

There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species.

Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the level of management and species seeded. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production. Fertilization, weed management, and prescribed grazing including appropriate utilization levels, adequate growing-season recovery periods, and timing of grazing that favor the productivity, health, and vigor of the seeded species are required to maintain this community. Periodic prescribed burning and brush management may also be needed.

Community 6.3
Natural Reclamation Community

The Natural Reclamation Community (6.3) consists of annual and perennial early successional species. Perennial threeawns, sand dropseed, and annual grasses are common species. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plowpan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a resource concern. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

The Eroded State (2) can be reached from any plant community of the Reference State (1). The Eroded State occurs with frequent and severe defoliation. Heavy, continuous grazing most often causes this transition, but it can also occur with rotational grazing when plants are not given adequate growing season recovery time before the paddocks or pastures are re-grazed. This process is accelerated when accompanied by additional disturbances, such as dormant season wildfire or extended drought (generally below average precipitation for 10 or more years). Heavy disturbance, such as vehicle traffic or livestock trailing can also cause this transition. The reduction in plant canopy and litter cover allows wind erosion to develop, creating large areas of blowing sand.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The Reference State (1) transitions to the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) in response to long-term (greater than ten years), heavy, seasonal grazing beginning in June. The Reference State loses a significant proportion of warm-season, tall- and midgrasses and crosses a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State. Non-native, cool-season grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass invade the site, eventually becoming subdominant to co-dominant.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

The Reference State (1) typically transitions to the Shortgrass Sod State (3) in response to rotational grazing with multiple grazing occupations during the growing season without adequate growing season recovery time. The Reference State loses a significant proportion of warm-season, tall- and midgrasses and crosses a threshold to the Shortgrass Sod State. Deep rooted plants are replaced by shallow rooted, sod-forming grasses which tend to form root mats and water infiltration is reduced. Forage production and plant species diversity have significantly declined. Initially, the plant community is a mosaic, with shortgrass and mixed grass communities intermingled but as the management continues the plant community becomes dominated by shortgrasses.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 5

Long-term (more than ten years) disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species with no woody species management can cause the Reference State (1) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (5).

Transition T1E
State 1 to 6

The Reference State (1) has been significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. When the land is no longer cropped, the resulting state is the Sodbusted State (6). The disruption to the plant community, the soil, and the hydrology of the system prevent restoration to a true Reference State.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

The Eroded State (2) can be restored to the Reference State (1) with long term (10 or more years) prescribed grazing. Initially, grazing management that incorporates concentrated short-term animal impact (such as feeding hay on the blowout) will encourage growth of early successional grasses and forbs. When either human-caused disturbance or livestock concentration caused the transition from the Reference State, removal of the disturbance along with appropriate grazing management is needed. With long term prescribed grazing, succession progresses, and the land will eventually return to the Reference State.

Restoration pathway R2B
State 2 to 3

The Eroded State (2) can be restored to the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) with long term (10 or more years) prescribed grazing. Initially, grazing management that incorporates concentrated short- term animal impact (such as feeding hay on the blowout) will encourage growth of early successional grasses and forbs. When either human-caused disturbance or livestock concentration caused the transition to the Eroded State, removal of the disturbance along with appropriate grazing management is needed. With long term prescribed grazing, succession progresses, and the land will eventually return to the Native/Invaded Grass State. Land that entered the Eroded State from the Native/Invaded Grass State, the Shortgrass Sod State (4), or the Sodbusted State (6) cannot return directly to the Reference State (1) as the plant community composition had been significantly altered before the land entered the Eroded State.

Restoration pathway R2C
State 2 to 4

The Eroded State (2) can be restored to the Shortgrass Sod State (4) with long term (10 or more years) prescribed grazing. Initially, grazing management that incorporates concentrated short- term animal impact (such as feeding hay on the blowout) will encourage growth of early successional grasses and forbs. When either human-caused disturbance or livestock concentration caused the transition to the Eroded State, removal of the disturbance along with appropriate grazing management is needed. With long term prescribed grazing, succession progresses, and the land will eventually return to the Shortgrass Sod State. Land that entered the Eroded State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (3), the Shortgrass Sod State, or the Sodbusted State (6) cannot return directly to the Reference State (1) as the plant community composition had been significantly altered before the land entered the Eroded State.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 5

Long-term (more than ten years) disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species with no woody species management can cause the Eroded State (2) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (5).

Transition R2D
State 2 to 6

The Eroded State (2) can be returned to the Sodbusted State (6) with long term (10 or more years) prescribed grazing. Initially, grazing management that incorporates concentrated short- term animal impact (such as feeding hay on the blowout) will encourage growth of early successional grasses and forbs. When either human-caused disturbance or livestock concentration caused the transition to the Eroded State, removal of the disturbance along with appropriate grazing management is needed. With long term prescribed grazing, succession progresses, and the land will eventually return to the Sodbusted State. Re-seeding may be needed to return to any community other than the Natural Reclamation Community (6.3).

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

Long-term (more than 15 years) prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods will move the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) toward the Reference State (1). The amount of time required for, and feasibility of this restoration depends upon the abundance of warm-season tall- and midgrasses and cool-season bunch grasses remaining in the plant community and the degree to which non-native grasses have invaded the plant community. This restoration may not be feasible.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

The Invaded Native Grass State (3) transitions to the Eroded State (2) with frequent and severe defoliation. Heavy, continuous grazing most often causes this transition, but it can also occur with rotational grazing when plants are not given adequate growing season recovery time before the paddocks or pastures are re-grazed. This process is accelerated when accompanied by additional disturbances, such as dormant season wildfire or extended drought (generally below average precipitation for 10 or more years). Heavy disturbance, such as vehicle traffic or livestock trailing can also cause this transition. The reduction in plant canopy and litter cover allows wind erosion to develop, creating large areas of blowing sand.

Transition T3B
State 3 to 4

The Native/Invaded Grass State (3) typically transitions to the Shortgrass State (4) in response to rotational grazing with multiple grazing occupations during the growing season without adequate growing season recovery time. The Native/Invaded Grass State loses a significant proportion of warm-season, tall- and midgrasses and crosses a threshold to the Shortgrass Sod State. Deep rooted plants are replaced by shallow rooted, sod- forming grasses which tend to form root mats and water infiltration is reduced. Forage production and plant species diversity have significantly declined.

Transition T3C
State 3 to 5

Long-term (more than ten years) disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species with no woody species management can cause the Native/Invaded Grass State (3) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (5).

Transition T3D
State 3 to 6

The Native/Invaded Grass State (3) has been significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. When the land is no longer cropped, the resulting state is the Sodbusted State (5). The disruption to the plant community, the soil, and the hydrology of the system prevent restoration to a Native/Invaded Grass State.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

Long-term (more than 15 years) prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods will move the Shortgrass Sod State (4) toward the Reference State (1). The amount of time required for, and feasibility of this restoration depends upon the abundance of warm-season tall- and midgrasses and cool-season bunch grasses remaining in the plant community. This restoration may not be feasible.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

The Shortgrass State (4) transitions to the Eroded State (2) with frequent and severe defoliation. Heavy, continuous grazing most often causes this transition, but it can also occur with rotational grazing when plants are not given adequate growing season recovery time before the paddocks or pastures are re-grazed. This process is accelerated when accompanied by additional disturbances, such as dormant season wildfire or extended drought (generally below average precipitation for 10 or more years). Heavy disturbance, such as vehicle traffic or livestock trailing can also cause this transition. The reduction in plant canopy and litter cover allows wind erosion to develop, creating large areas of blowing sand.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 3

Long-term (more than 15 years) prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods will move the Shortgrass State (4) toward the Native/Invaded Grass State (3). The amount of time required for, and feasibility of this restoration depends upon the abundance of warm-season tall- and midgrasses and cool-season bunch grasses remaining in the plant community. This restoration may not be feasible.

Transition T4B
State 4 to 5

Long-term (more than ten years) disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species with no woody species management can cause the Shortgrass Sod State (4) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (5).

Transition T4C
State 4 to 6

The Shortgrass Sod State (4) has been significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. When the land is no longer cropped, the resulting state is the Sodbusted State (5). The disruption to the plant community, the soil, and the hydrology of the system prevent restoration to the Shortgrass Sod State.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 1

The Invaded Woody State (5) can be restored to the Reference State (1) through prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, or brush management. The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Native/Invaded Grass State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Eroded State (2), the Native/Invasive Grass State (3), the Shortgrass Sod State (4), or the Sodbusted State (6) cannot be restored to the Reference State through the removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur with removal of brush alone.

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 2

The Invaded Woody State (5) can be restored to the Eroded State (2) through prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, or brush management. The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Eroded State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from Eroded State cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through the removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur with removal of brush alone.

Restoration pathway R5C
State 5 to 3

The Invaded Woody State (5) can be restored to the Native/Invaded State (3) through prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, or brush management. The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Native/Invaded Grass State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from Native/Invaded State cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through the removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur with removal of brush alone.

Restoration pathway R5D
State 5 to 4

The Invaded Woody State (5) can be restored to the Shortgrass Sod State (4) through prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, or brush management. The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Shortgrass Sod State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from Shortgrass Sod State cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through the removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur with removal of brush alone.

Restoration pathway R5E
State 5 to 6

The Invaded Woody State (5) can be restored to the Sodbusted State (6) through prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, or brush management. The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Sodbusted State by management practices. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from Sodbusted State cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through the removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur with removal of brush alone.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 2

Transition T6B
State 6 to 5

Long-term (more than ten years) disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species with no woody species management can cause the Sodbusted State (4) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (5).