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Conservation Service
Ecological site F220XK433AK
Maritime Forest Loamy Slopes
Kodiak
Last updated: 9/30/2026
Accessed: 10/07/2026
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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 220X–Alexander Archipelago-Gulf of Alaska Coast
The Alexander Archipelago-Gulf of Alaska Coast area consists of a narrow arc of islands and lower elevation coastal mountains in the Southern Alaska Region. This area spans from the Alexander Archipelago in southeastern Alaska, north and west along the coast of the Gulf of Alaska and Prince William Sound, and further west to the southern tip of the Kenai Peninsula and the northeastern islands of the Kodiak Archipelago. The area makes up about 27,435 square miles (USDA 2006). The terrain primarily consists of low to moderate relief mountains that are deeply incised. Rocky headlands, sea cliffs, estuaries, and beaches are common along the coast.
During the late Pleistocene epoch, the entire area was covered with glacial ice, which have shaped this MLRA. Most glacial deposits have been eroded away or buried by mountain colluvium and alluvium, which cover about 90 percent of the present landscape. During the Holocene epoch, volcanic activity deposited volcanic ash layers of varying thickness on much of the area. Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Lower Tertiary stratified sedimentary rocks and Cretaceous and Tertiary intrusive rocks underlie much of the area and are exposed on steep mountain slopes and ridges (USDA 2006).
The dominant soil orders in this MLRA are Spodosols, Histosols, and Entisols. Typically, soils classify with a cryic soil temperature regime, an udic moisture regime, and have mixed minerology. Spodosols are common on mountains and hills, formed in gravelly or cobbly colluvium, glacial till, and silty volcanic ash. Spodosols identified range from shallow to deep, are well to somewhat poorly drained, and typically classify as Humicryods or Haplocryods. Histosols that are poorly to very poorly drained occur on footslopes, discharge slopes, and valley floors, and commonly classify as Cryosaprists, Cryohemists, and Cryofibrists. Well drained Histosols occur on steep mountainsides, commonly classify as Cryofolists. Flood plains, stream terraces, and outwash plains formed in silty, sandy, and gravelly to cobbly alluvium classify as Entisols. These Entisols are generally deep, range from well to somewhat poorly drained, and commonly classify as Cryaquents and Cryofluvents. Miscellaneous (nonsoil) areas make up about 23 percent of this MLRA including chutes, rock outcrop, rubble land, beaches, riverwash, and water.
This area represents the northern extent of the Pacific temperate rainforest and is characterized by productive stands of conifers. Western hemlock and Sitka spruce are the dominant trees on mountains and hills at the lower elevations. Due to warmer temperatures, western red cedar and Alaska cedar are more prevalent in the southern part of the area. Black cottonwood and mixed forest types occur on flood plains. Areas of peat and other sites that are too wet for forest growth support sedge-grass meadows and low scrub. The transition to subalpine and alpine communities typically occurs at elevations between 1500 to 3000 feet (Boggs et al. 2010, Carstensen 2007, Martin et al. 1995), which characterize the vegetation of the Southern Alaska Coastal Mountains area.
Logging, commercial fishing, and mining have been the primary industry for many decades. Although logging has declined due to changes in public interests, policies, and economics, commercial fishing continues to be an important industry. Tourism and wildland recreation are increasingly important, but local residents and remote villages still survive on subsistence hunting, fishing, and gathering resources.LRU notes
The Kodiak Island Archipelago are a group of islands with small straits connecting them. Kodiak is the largest of the islands. The islands are unconnected extension of the Kenai Peninsula with predominately metamorphic geology, which differs significantly from the volcanic geology of the Alaska Peninsula. Much of the soil in the northeastern extent of the archipelago are influenced by the ash fall of 1912. The Kodiak islands are the western most extent of MLRA 220. The Aleutian influence and change in maritime storms from west to east creates a Sitka Spruce dominated forested community.
Classification relationships
USNVC
Classification Code Level Name Database Code
TT2 - B02 Temperate-Boreal Forest & Woodland Biome
TT2.b - S92 Cool Temperate Forest & Woodland Subbiome
TT2.b2 - Oceanic Cool Temperate Rainforest Ecobiome
TT2.b2.Na - D338 North American Pacific Coast Temperate Rainforest Division
TT2.b2.Na.1 - M024 North Pacific Coastal Rainforest Macrogroup
TT2.b2.Na.1.g - G750 Coastal Alaskan Western Hemlock - Sitka Spruce Rainforest Group
TT2.b2.Na.1.g - A3601 Western Hemlock - Sitka Spruce / Alaska Blueberry Forest Alliance
TT2.b2.Na.1.g - CEGL003268 Association
Viereck:
Level III - I.A.1 - Closed needleleaf forest
Level IV - I.A.1.a Sitka Spruce closed forest
(Viereck et al., 1970)
Landfire Biophysical Settings communities:
7616440 - Alaskan Pacific Maritime Sitka Spruce Forest
(Landfire, 2009)Ecological site concept
This site occurs on hill and mountain slopes. Flooding and ponding are not known to occur on these well drained soils. Slope ranges between 15 to 60 percent and elevation ranges from 20 to 1650 ft. Soil is generally moderately deep to bedrock and soil textures are medial to medial-skeletal. Parent material is organic materials over volcanic ash over gravelly till.
The Reference State supports one community phase, and the reference community phase is represented by a closed needleleaf forest. The presence of the communities in the reference and alternate states are dictated temporally and spatially by natural disturbances such as ice storms, wind throw, disease, and natural die back that alter the forest canopy. Fire is a potential in this canopy, however, is rare.Associated sites
R220XK434AK Maritime Scrubland Peat Plain Depression Kodiak
Intermixed in the lower timbered slopes concave depressions or muskegs are common on the landscape. These wet areas are typically flanked by the forested site.
F220XK200AK Subalpine Forest Gravelly Dry Slopes Kodiak
The Subalpine community of stunted Sitka spruce will occur on the higher elevations, and as shift into the maritime lower lands, will see spruce increase in stature and density, with a shift in the understory species.
Similar sites
F220XY200AK Subalpine Forest Gravelly Dry Slopes
The MLRA 220 wide concept for this ecological site is similar but transitions into a hemlock/spruce community as move towards the Southeast. There is also a corresponding change in soils, understory species, and production/management responses.
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree (1) Picea sitchensis
Shrub Not specified
Herbaceous (1) Hylocomium splendens
Physiographic features
This site occurs on till over residuum soils on hills and low mountains. Flooding and ponding are not known to occur and no water table is associated with this site. Slopes typically range from 10 to 50 percent and elevations range from 20 to 1,640 feet.
Figure 1. The landscape showing ES 433 on the lower slopes, surrounding the wet depressions of ES 434.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Hillslope profile (1) Backslope
(2) Footslope
(3) Toeslope
(4) Shoulder
(5) Summit
Slope shape across (1) Linear
(2) Concave
Slope shape up-down (1) Linear
(2) Convex
Geomorphic position, hills (1) Side Slope
(2) Crest
Geomorphic position, mountains (1) Mountainflank
(2) Mountainbase
Landforms (1) Island > Hill > Swale
(2) Island > Mountain
(3) Island > Hill
Flooding frequency None Ponding frequency None Elevation 20 – 1640 ft Slope 10 – 50 % Water table depth 39 – 60 in Aspect W, NW, N, NE, E, SE, S, SW Table 3. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)
Flooding frequency Not specified Ponding frequency Not specified Elevation 0 – 2620 ft Slope 0 – 75 % Water table depth 15 – 0 in Climatic features
Moderate temperatures, and abundant rainfall characterize the temperate maritime climate of this area. Winter storms, accompanied by snow and rain at lower elevations and snow at higher elevations, are frequent. Moderate to strong, westerly winds are common before and during storms. The average annual precipitation is approximately 60 inches. The average annual snowfall is about 65 inches, snow does not persist in great depth along coast and lower elevations, but is persistent through the winter at high elevations. The average annual temperature is about 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4.4 degrees Celsius) (USDA 1956). The average annual temperatures associated with lower elevation maritime vegetation is considerably warmer compared to higher elevation subalpine vegetation. The average frost-free period is about 115 to 120 days.
Table 4 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 120-120 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) 140-160 days Precipitation total (characteristic range) 70-70 in Frost-free period (actual range) 110-120 days Freeze-free period (actual range) 90-200 days Precipitation total (actual range) 70-80 in Frost-free period (average) 120 days Freeze-free period (average) 150 days Precipitation total (average) 70 in Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 2. Monthly precipitation range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 3. Monthly minimum temperature range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 4. Monthly maximum temperature range
BarLineFigure 5. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 6. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 7 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) KODIAK AP [USW00025501], Kodiak, AK
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(2) KODIAK WWTP [USC00504991], Kodiak, AK
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(3) KITOI BAY [USC00504812], Kodiak, AK
">Influencing water features
Due to its landscape position, this site has dry soil. This site is neither associated with or influenced by streams or wetlands. Precipitation is the main source of water for this ecological site. Infiltration is very slow, and surface runoff is high. Surface runoff contributes some water to downslope ecological sites.
Wetland description
No wetlands associated with this site.
Soil features
This site almost always occurs on bedrock-controlled soils but does seldomly occur on deeper ash-influenced soils. Bedrock controlled soils typically formed in gravelly colluvium and/or weathered residuum. The bedrock typically occurs within 20 inches. The deeper soils formed in volcanic ash. Rock fragments do not typically occur on the soil surface. Rock fragments in the soil subsurface are variable, typically ranging between 15 and 60 percent of the soil profile by volume.
The soil moisture regime for these dry soils is udic. The temperature regime for this site is cryic, where the mean annual soil temperature is between 32 and 46 degrees Fahrenheit (USDA-NRCS 2006).
Afognak, Devilpaw, Izhut, Kazakof, Kodiak, Port Lions, and Shuyak are the major series correlated to this ecological site.
Figure 8. Modal soil concept for this ecological site.
Figure 9. Example of the shallower soil within the concept of this ecological site.
Figure 10. Example of the higher organic shallower soil within the concept of this ecological site.
Figure 11. Example of the deeper soil within the concept of this ecological site.
Table 5. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Herbaceous organic material
(2) Volcanic ash
(3) Till
(4) Residuum – graywacke
Surface texture (1) Ashy fine sandy loam
(2) Ashy sandy loam
(3) Ashy loamy fine sand
(4) Ashy loamy sand
Family particle size (1) Medial
(2) Medial-skeletal
(3) Ashy over loamy-skeletal
Drainage class Moderately well drained to well drained Permeability class Moderate Depth to restrictive layer 16 – 20 in Soil depth 16 – 20 in Available water capacity
(0-10in)1.3 – 2.9 in Clay content
(0-10in)1 – 2 % Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)0 – 2 mmhos/cm Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-10in)3.5 – 5.5 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(0-40in)10 – 35 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(0-40in)0 – 5 % Table 6. Representative soil features (actual values)
Drainage class Not specified Permeability class Not specified Depth to restrictive layer 0 in Soil depth 0 in Available water capacity
(0-10in)0.8 – 3.3 in Clay content
(0-10in)0 % Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)0 mmhos/cm Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-10in)3.5 – 6 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(0-40in)2 – 65 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(0-40in)0 – 10 % Ecological dynamics
The information in this Ecological Dynamics section, including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed based on historical data, current field data, professional experience, and a review of the scientific literature. As a result, all possible scenarios or plant species may not be included. Key indicator plant species, disturbances, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.
This ecological site occurs on mountain slopes on mostly bedrock-controlled soils at elevations below tree line. Sitka spruce is the prominent tree species, and is best adapted to the cold temperatures, bitter wind, and deep snowpack associated with this MLRA and LRU. Avalanches, creeping snowpack that crushes woody vegetation, fungal pathogens, and blowdown are small-patch disturbances that typically result in mortality of individual or small groups of trees in this site (Viereck et al. 1992; NatureServe 2018). Fire, although rare, has occurred in this ecological site. These small-patch disturbances, combined with important site factors like elevation and drainage class, maintain vegetation within this maritime forest.
The state-and-transition model that follows provides a detailed description of each known state, community phase, pathway, and transition. This model is based on available experimental research, field observations, literature reviews, professional consensus, and interpretations.State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
SWAPAEHSWAPAEHT1A - Removal of tree canopy by fire, wind, disease, or other. R2A - Time without disturbance, and suitable seedling stock. State 1 submodel, plant communities
SWAPAEHState 2 submodel, plant communities
SWAPAEHSWAPAEHSWAPAEH2.1a - Salmonberry parent source and stable soils. 2.1b - Alder parent source and steeper, rockier soils State 1
Reference StateThe Reference State is a mature Sitka spruce community with a prominent moss understory. This State occurs in a complex with non-forested communities that are further defined in the next State (State 2).
Characteristics and indicators. A near monoculture stand of Sitka spruce with a moss understory is the modal concept of this State.
Resilience management. The spruce stands are long lived and fire is rare, so the forested community is resistant to change, and able to adapt quickly with understory growth responding to the open canopy. In catastrophic events, there is risk of erosional concerns due to the steep slopes, shallower bedrock controlled soils. A humid cool climate, year-round precipitation, and the moss understory devoid of fine fuels create an environment that rarely sees fire. However, when an event occurs and the forest does burn, the thick moss understory and the dense timber stand generally lacks ladder fuels to promote a crown fire, and the dense moss tends to burn slow and smolder. Depending on the more microclimate conditions within the stand and the start of the event will determine the resiliency of the State.
Dominant plant species
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Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), tree
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splendid feather moss (Hylocomium splendens), other herbaceous
Community 1.1
Sitka Spruce/Moss
Figure 12. The shadowed forest floor is dominantly covered by mosses.
Figure 13. In areas of disturbance or where canopy is opened up, devilsclub can be found.
Figure 14. Strong overstory canopy of Sitka spruce.
Sitka spruce is the dominant tree. The mature cover of trees creates a dense canopy that limits the light that makes it to the forest floor. This is perfect for a moss dominated understory. Various species of lichens, fungi, and forbs may be present, often in low total quantities. When trees are thinned by wind throw, disease, and other processes, the open canopy provides light for a host of species that are laying dormant in the moss and duff layer. Salmonberry, ferns, fireweed, and bluejoint are quick to respond to the available resources. Although there will be a progression of ages of stands and the associated communities, the modal concept is the Spruce/Moss community.
Resilience management. Spruce are a long lived species that is hardy. Root rot or other diseases as well as spruce bark beetles are a common threat to these species. The community appears to be strong and resilient to logging. Logging reports share that after initial logging harvests across Kodiak, following replanting of seedlings, the forest stands can refresh to a mature, harvestable stand in approximately 50 to 75 years. Fire is rare, and logging, timber management, and minimal invasive species has allowed this community to thrive.
Forest overstory.The near monoculture stand of Sitka Spruce is competitive against the hardwood trees that persist along the margins of this community.
Forest understory. A combination of mosses are the dominant surface cover. Ferns, bluejoint, and fireweed are present with a other forbs scattered throughout the understory, but these species are trace in community composition.
Dominant plant species
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Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), tree
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salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), shrub
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bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), grass
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splendid feather moss (Hylocomium splendens), other herbaceous
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common ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), other herbaceous
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
Table 7. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) Tree Shrub/Vine Grass/
GrasslikeForb <0.5 – 0-5% 0-1% 10-50% >0.5 <= 1 – 0-10% 0-2% 0-5% >1 <= 2 – 0-5% 0-5% 0-2% >2 <= 4.5 – 0-1% 0-5% 0-1% >4.5 <= 13 – 0-2% 0-1% 0-1% >13 <= 40 0-30% – – – >40 <= 80 0-40% – – – >80 <= 120 0-10% – – – >120 – – – – State 2
Non-forested StateAn open, or non-forested, community with grasses, forbs, and either a combination of shrubs, or a dominance of ferns compose the site.
Characteristics and indicators. This State is characterized by a shrub or herbaceous cover dominated community. The loss of tree cover or lack of tree cover is the marker of the shift to this altered state. These herbaceous or shrub communities are not necessarily altered or a response to disturbance, but may occur naturally in a complex with the forested community.
Resilience management. The complexity or mosaic occurrence of communities across the landscape create a dynamic environment to classify. In this State, there are three community phases that may occur in response to disturbance, and are primary and secondary in succession of recovery. But these same communities occur intermixed in the ecological site as inclusions with no indicator of disturbance or driver that has led to the particular community phase. The state is resilient and able to respond to disturbances, but is not resistant to catastrophic responses.
Dominant plant species
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salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), shrub
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Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata), shrub
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bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), grass
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common ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), other herbaceous
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fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium), other herbaceous
Dominant resource concerns
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Sheet and rill erosion
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Aggregate instability
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Plant structure and composition
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Community 2.1
Ferns/Bluejoint/Forbs
Figure 15. Open canopy areas promote ferns, devilsclub and a variety of forbs to colonize the community.
Figure 16. In edges of forested sites, or where trees are removed, a mixture of sedges, grasses, forbs, and ferns persists.
Figure 17. As the forest ages out allowing openings to form in the canopy, fern cover increases.
Removal or thinning of spruce canopy due to logging, blow down, die off, fire or other measures provides increased light and nutrients to the understory. Bluejoint grass and the established fern cover responds with increased growth quickly. Bluejoint grass dense roots forms thick mats of herbaceous litter that inhibits the growth of spruce and alder seedlings. Forbs such as fireweed and false green hellebore respond quickly providing valuable soil cover and protection. This community is transitional to either a salmonberry cover or alder and grass cover.
Resilience management. Management of this community is targeted at controlling alder and promoting forest cover with seeding. The fern canopy, as mentioned before, is a transitional community or a primary/secondary successional community following disturbance. Although this community can persist for an extended period, it is only a step towards a more prominent shrub community.
Dominant plant species
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devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), shrub
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salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), shrub
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bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), grass
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common ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), other herbaceous
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spreading woodfern (Dryopteris expansa), other herbaceous
Dominant resource concerns
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Sheet and rill erosion
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Wind erosion
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Organic matter depletion
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Aggregate instability
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Drifted Snow
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Figure 18. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Community 2.2
Salmonberry
Figure 19. Salmonberry thicket on open edges of forested community.
Figure 20. Salmonberry, rose, and forb cover.
Salmonberry is a medium height shrub within this community and forms dense overstory cover. A combination of grasses and forbs reside in the understory of the shrub. Salmonberry is an important food resource for the local villages.
Resilience management. Salmonberry is responsive and can provide a significant cover relatively rapidly following a disturbance. The plant is resilient but can be hindered by heavy browse. Bluejoint, hellebore, fireweed, and other grasses (and grass-likes) and forbs persist where nutrients and resources are available.
Dominant plant species
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salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), shrub
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bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), grass
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smallawned sedge (Carex microchaeta), grass
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fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium), other herbaceous
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woolly geranium (Geranium erianthum), other herbaceous
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seacoast angelica (Angelica lucida), other herbaceous
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narcissus anemone (Anemone narcissiflora), other herbaceous
Dominant resource concerns
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Organic matter depletion
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
Figure 21. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Community 2.3
Sitka Alder/Graminoids
Figure 22. Alder community can become a thicket, and make travel through difficult. Wildlife utilize these areas.
Figure 23. Image of the dense alder canopy in an alder thicket.
Figure 24. In the mosaic or patchy alder growth, a diverse herbaceous cover is present.
Figure 25. The mosaic or patchy growth of dense herbaceous with alder patches makes travel difficult especially on the steeper slopes.
This community is an open patchwork of alder thickets with open grassy areas. The intermixed cover provides for a diverse community of alders, with other shrubs intermixed, grasses, forbs, and moss understory.
Resilience management. Alders are an aggressive or tolerant species that, once established, is difficult to remove. Alder does provide protection and some shade for understory shaded plants, and provides edge affects that allows for a greater diversity of species. This combination makes the alder community resilient to disturbance and resistant to change without significant energy and resource inputs. Spruce may grow among the alders, though seedling establishment is difficult among the dense bluejoint beds that often accompany alder.
Dominant plant species
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Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata), shrub
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salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), shrub
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devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), shrub
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bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), grass
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fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium), other herbaceous
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Kamchatka fritillary (Fritillaria camschatcensis), other herbaceous
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green false hellebore (Veratrum viride), other herbaceous
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angelica (Angelica), other herbaceous
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Canada goldenrod (Solidago canadensis), other herbaceous
Dominant resource concerns
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Drifted Snow
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Figure 26. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Pathway 2.1a
Community 2.1 to 2.2
Ferns/Bluejoint/Forbs
SalmonberrySalmonberry prefers soils that are more stable and nutrient-rich, compared to the similar community colonized by alder. These two species will colonize in a patchwork pattern on the landscape, and there is little conclusive documentation on the specific services driving this system. However, more gentle sloped, well drained soils with more abundant nutrients support strong communities of salmonberry. In shady zones, the soils are slumping or have a higher rock content, alder will be dominant in the community.
Key drivers
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Climate
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Avalanche frequency or severity
Key ecosystem services affected
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Nutrient cycling
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Primary production
Pathway 2.1b
Community 2.1 to 2.3
Ferns/Bluejoint/Forbs
Sitka Alder/GraminoidsAlder is quick to establish on disturbed, unstable soils. They are commonly dominant on rockier, lower nutrient soils, outcompeting species such as salmonberry. These two species will colonize in a patchwork pattern on the landscape. Minimal conclusive documentation was found describing services driving this system. However, alder is able to establish on steeper, more rugged, harsh sites. Alder fixes nitrogen in the soil that is then complimentary to salmonberry. In areas where shading is occurring, the soils are slumping, or have a higher rock content, alder will be dominant in the community.
Key drivers
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Climate
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Avalanche frequency or severity
Key ecosystem services affected
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Cultural heritage values
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Nutrient cycling
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Primary production
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2Large scale wind throw events, ice storms, disease, slope erosion, or other means of tree removal from the community quickly transitions the Forested state to an Unforested state. Although fire is rare, there is the potential for burns, however, root rot and other diseases as well as old age, and wind throw can take out significant portions of canopy. The open canopy allows understory to flourish.
Constraints to recovery.Recovery can be extremely slow, depending on the disturbance that caused the canopy to open, the viability of the seedbank for spruce, and the climatic and site conditions for seed germination. Time and site conditions are critical for success.
Conservation practices
Upland Wildlife Habitat Management Forest Stand Improvement Key drivers
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Precipitation (decadal scale)
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Temperature (monthly scale)
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Fire
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Precipitation (annual scale)
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Temperature (annual scale)
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Timber management
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Fire frequency
Key ecosystem services affected
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Aesthetic values
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Wildlife habitat
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Plant biodiversity
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1Time without further disturbance, with site preparation and planting of seedling spruce varieties may be necessary for this site to recover.
Context dependence.Native Sitka spruce struggle to establish back into this community, and many times other available nursery stock are used to enhance productivity of the trees, especially for timber sales. Soil biota are key factors for spruce establishment and productivity. Site conditions are harsh and depending on the disturbance, the biota of the soil may have changed.
Conservation practices
Upland Wildlife Habitat Management Forest Stand Improvement Additional community tables
Table 8. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 9. Community 1.1 forest overstory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height ft Canopy cover (%) Diameter in Basal area (square ft/acre) TreeSitka spruce PISI Picea sitchensis Native – 30-80 – 0 Table 10. Community 1.1 forest understory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height (ft) Canopy cover (%) Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)bluejoint CACA4 Calamagrostis canadensis Native – 5–10 Forb/HerbKamchatka fritillary FRCA5 Fritillaria camschatcensis Native – 1–5 fireweed CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium Native – 0–5 woolly geranium GEER2 Geranium erianthum Native – 0–2 green false hellebore VEVI Veratrum viride Native – 0–2 angelica ANGEL Angelica Native – 0–2 Fern/fern allycommon ladyfern ATFI Athyrium filix-femina Native – 5–20 spreading woodfern DREX2 Dryopteris expansa Native – 0–10 Shrub/Subshrubsalmonberry RUSP Rubus spectabilis Native – 5–20 Sitka alder ALVIS Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata Native – 0–5 devilsclub OPHO Oplopanax horridus Native – 0–1 NonvascularMoss 2MOSS Moss Native – 0–30 splendid feather moss HYSP70 Hylocomium splendens Native – 10–30 knights plume moss PTCR70 Ptilium crista-castrensis Native – 10–30 Table 11. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Grasses/Grasslikes – bluejoint CACA4 Calamagrostis canadensis – 5–45 Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 2GRAM Graminoid (grass or grass-like) – 0–20 longawn sedge CAMA11 Carex macrochaeta – 1–10 Forb2 Ferns – common ladyfern ATFI Athyrium filix-femina – 5–40 spreading woodfern DREX2 Dryopteris expansa – 1–15 western oakfern GYDR Gymnocarpium dryopteris – 0–5 Fern or Fern Ally 2FERN Fern or Fern Ally – 0–5 3 Forbs – common cowparsnip HEMA80 Heracleum maximum – 0–20 fireweed CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium – 5–20 green false hellebore VEVI Veratrum viride – 1–5 kneeling angelica ANGE2 Angelica genuflexa – 1–5 Forb (herbaceous, not grass nor grass-like) 2FORB Forb (herbaceous, not grass nor grass-like) – 0–5 Kamchatka fritillary FRCA5 Fritillaria camschatcensis – 0–5 western rattlesnakeroot PRAL Prenanthes alata – 0–5 northern starwort STCA Stellaria calycantha – 0–5 fragrant bedstraw GATR3 Galium triflorum – 0–5 field horsetail EQAR Equisetum arvense – 0–5 seacoast angelica ANLU Angelica lucida – 0–5 woolly geranium GEER2 Geranium erianthum – 0–5 violet VIOLA Viola – 0–2 fleshy starwort STCR Stellaria crassifolia – 0–2 arctic starflower TREU Trientalis europaea – 0–2 Siberian springbeauty CLSI2 Claytonia sibirica – 0–1 lyrate rockcress ARLY2 Arabis lyrata – 0–1 Shrub/Vine4 Shrubs – salmonberry RUSP Rubus spectabilis – 1–15 devilsclub OPHO Oplopanax horridus – 1–10 Sitka alder ALVIS Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata – 0–5 red elderberry SARA2 Sambucus racemosa – 0–5 beauverd spirea SPST3 Spiraea stevenii – 0–5 Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) – 0–5 Moss5 Moss/Lichen – Moss 2MOSS Moss – 5–30 Lichen 2LICHN Lichen – 0–15 Schreber's big red stem moss PLSC70 Pleurozium schreberi – 0–15 rhizomnium moss RHIZO2 Rhizomnium – 0–15 Table 12. Community 2.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Shrub/Vine1 Shrubs – salmonberry RUSP Rubus spectabilis – 10–50 devilsclub OPHO Oplopanax horridus – 0–5 Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) – 0–5 Sitka alder ALVIS Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata – 0–2 Grass/Grasslike2 Grass/Grasslikes – bluejoint CACA4 Calamagrostis canadensis – 10–40 Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 2GRAM Graminoid (grass or grass-like) – 0–10 smallawned sedge CAMI4 Carex microchaeta – 1–5 Forb3 Forbs – fireweed CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium – 0–5 boreal yarrow ACMIB Achillea millefolium var. borealis – 0–5 seacoast angelica ANLU Angelica lucida – 0–5 Forb (herbaceous, not grass nor grass-like) 2FORB Forb (herbaceous, not grass nor grass-like) – 0–5 Kamchatka fritillary FRCA5 Fritillaria camschatcensis – 0–5 woolly geranium GEER2 Geranium erianthum – 0–5 butterbur PETAS Petasites – 0–2 green false hellebore VEVI Veratrum viride – 0–2 narcissus anemone ANNA Anemone narcissiflora – 0–2 common cowparsnip HEMA80 Heracleum maximum – 0–1 arctic starflower TREU Trientalis europaea – 0–1 4 Ferns – common ladyfern ATFI Athyrium filix-femina – 1–10 spreading woodfern DREX2 Dryopteris expansa – 1–5 Fern or Fern Ally 2FERN Fern or Fern Ally – 0–5 Moss5 Moss, Lichen – Moss 2MOSS Moss – 0–15 Lichen 2LICHN Lichen – 0–10 Schreber's big red stem moss PLSC70 Pleurozium schreberi – 5–10 rhizomnium moss RHIZO2 Rhizomnium – 1–5 Table 13. Community 2.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Shrub/Vine1 Shrubs – Sitka alder ALVIS Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata – 20–80 salmonberry RUSP Rubus spectabilis – 5–25 devilsclub OPHO Oplopanax horridus – 0–5 Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) – 0–5 red baneberry ACRU2 Actaea rubra – 0–2 red elderberry SARA2 Sambucus racemosa – 0–2 Grass/Grasslike2 Grass/Grasslike – bluejoint CACA4 Calamagrostis canadensis – 10–50 Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 2GRAM Graminoid (grass or grass-like) – 0–10 longawn sedge CAMA11 Carex macrochaeta – 1–5 smallawned sedge CAMI4 Carex microchaeta – 1–2 Forb3 Forbs – green false hellebore VEVI Veratrum viride – 0–10 Forb (herbaceous, not grass nor grass-like) 2FORB Forb (herbaceous, not grass nor grass-like) – 0–10 fireweed CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium – 0–5 woolly geranium GEER2 Geranium erianthum – 0–5 Kamchatka fritillary FRCA5 Fritillaria camschatcensis – 0–5 seacoast angelica ANLU Angelica lucida – 0–2 Siberian springbeauty CLSI2 Claytonia sibirica – 0–1 5 Ferns – common ladyfern ATFI Athyrium filix-femina – 0–10 spreading woodfern DREX2 Dryopteris expansa – 0–5 western oakfern GYDR Gymnocarpium dryopteris – 0–5 Fern or Fern Ally 2FERN Fern or Fern Ally – 0–5 Moss4 Moss, Lichen – Moss 2MOSS Moss – 0–20 dicranum moss DICRA8 Dicranum – 0–10 splendid feather moss HYSP70 Hylocomium splendens – 0–10 knights plume moss PTCR70 Ptilium crista-castrensis – 0–10 Lichen 2LICHN Lichen – 0–5 Interpretations
Animal community
Elk, black-tailed deer, and bear are a common inhabitant of this ecological site. The variable cover provides excellent browse and grazing, as well as excellent cover. The area, when co-located with wet depressions, supports a host of fur-bearing animals, including fox and beaver.
Hydrological functions
Micro-features in this ecological site and location with muskegs and wet depressions provides a varied hydrologic potential. Further information is needed to provide any further information.
Recreational uses
The intermixed timber and shrub covered community phases provides food source as well as cover for wildlife across the area. Birding is excellent throughout this ecological site, as well as hiking. The steep slopes and dense timber cover can pose hazards for recreation, and does limit access to motored vehicles.
Wood products
Logging is a major industry impact on this ecological site. The tall, dense spruce stands are productive and although can be difficult to access, are commercially viable communities. Once logged, many of these stands can recover, with seedling plantings, within 50 to 75 years.
Other products
Mosaics of both salmonberry and alder provide opportunities for a variety of berry species to harvest. The wooded communities are a nursery to a variety of mushrooms and fungi. There are also a host of other culturally significant and medicinal plants that inhabit in this ecological site.
Supporting information
Inventory data references
Alaska has established Releve as the main protocol used for vegetation inventory for soil survey. The protocol is kept updated with appropriate worksheet and guide sheets as needed. A Sampling Operational Plan is in place and is maintained by the Regional Ecologist(s). Forest inventory and rangeland or understory inventory is completed with this method.
References
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. 2021 (Date accessed). USDA PLANTS Database. http://plants.usda.gov.
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. 2016. United States national vegetation classification database, V2.0.. United States National Vegetation Classification.. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee., Washington, D.C..
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NatureServe. 2018 (Date accessed). NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.1. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http://explorer.natureserve.org.. http://explorer.natureserve.org.
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Schoeneberger, P.J. and D.A. Wysocki. 2012. Geomorphic Description System. Natural Resources Conservation Service, 4.2 edition. National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE.
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Soil Science Division Staff. 2017. Soil Survey Manual. USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 18. 603 pages.
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United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2022. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin (Agriculture Handbook 296). United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
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United States Department of Agriculture, . 2006. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin... USDA Handbook 296 1–682.
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Viereck, L.A., C. T. Dyrness, A. R. Batten, and K. J. Wenzlick. 1992. The Alaska vegetation classification. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station General Technical Report PNW-GTR-286..
Other references
Landfire. 2009. Biophysical Setting 7616440 – Alaska Pacific Maritime Sitka Spruce Forest. In: LANDFIRE National Vegetation Dynamics Models. USDA Forest Service and US Department of Interior. Washington, DC.
Contributors
Phillip Barber
Marji PatzApproval
Jamin Johanson, 9/30/2026
Acknowledgments
Tyler Annetts Jamin Johanson Blaine Spellman
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Contact for lead author Date 10/07/2026 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
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Presence of water flow patterns:
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Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
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Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
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Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
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Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
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Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
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Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
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Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
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Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
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Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
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Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
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Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
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Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
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Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
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Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
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Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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PrintThe Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.
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