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Ecological site VX162X01X503
Udic Isothermic Forest
Last updated: 9/12/2023
Accessed: 09/17/2026
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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
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Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 162X–Humid and Very Humid Organic Soils on Lava Flows
This MLRA occurs in the State of Hawaii on the Big Island of Hawaii on the southeastern slopes of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea volcanoes. Elevation ranges from sea level to 4000 feet (0 to 1200 meters). Slopes follow the undulating to very steep topography of the lava flows. The flows are basaltic aa or pahoehoe lava, which are covered by a very shallow layer of organic material or in limited areas by recent volcanic ash. Climate is mostly wet tropical. Average annual precipitation typically ranges from 60 to 235 inches (1500 to 5875 millimeters), increasing with elevation and to the north. Rainfall occurs mostly from November through April in udic areas and is evenly distributed throughout the year in perudic areas. Average annual temperatures range from 54 to 73 degrees F (12 to 23 degrees C), with little seasonal variation. Soils are mostly Udifolists with isothermic or isohyperthermic soil temperature regimes. Very young lava flows may have no soil covering. Native vegetation consists of moderate to tall stature rain forests, low stature dry forests, and “savannas” dominated by dense thickets of uluhe ferns.
Classification relationships
This ecological site occurs within Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 162 - Humid and Very Humid Organic Soils on Lava Flows.
Ecological site concept
This ecological site is the medium stature wet forest that follows is situated between Saddle Road (Rte. 200) and Stainback Highway and makai of Route 11 from around Mountain View to Volcano. Much of the area is private land, the State of Hawaii, and Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Many areas are dominated by native plant species, and good examples of the reference state can be found along the roads mentioned above in in HVNP.
The central concept of the Udic Isothermic Forest is of somewhat poorly to well drained, very shallow to deep soils formed in deposits of highly decomposed plant material or volcanic ash over pahoehoe (flat lava flows) or within the spaces of aa (cobbly lava flows). Lava flows are young, ranging from 750 to 5000 years old. Annual air temperatures and rainfall create warm (isothermic), moist (udic) soil conditions. These soils support a forest an overstory 40 to 60 feet (12 to 18 meters) tall of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), a secondary canopy from 16 to 25 feet (5 to 8 meters) tall of diverse tree species, a tree fern canopy 10 to 16 feet (3 to 5 meters) tall, and a diverse understory of shrubs, forbs, ferns, and vines.Associated sites
VX162X01X505 Isothermic Aquic Forest
F162XY505 Isothermic Aquic Forest is a forest ecological site on aquic soils. It occurs in close proximity with F162XY503, typically in kipukas that receive runoff from surrounding younger lava flows.
VX162X01X500 Isohyperthermic Forest
F162XY500 Isohyperthermic Forest is a moist forest ecological site that supports some different plant species and is located at lower, hotter elevations than F162XY503.
VX159A01X500 Well Drained Udic and Perudic Forest
F159AY500 Deep and Very Deep Volcanic Ash Forest is a taller stature forest ecological site on higher elevations, usually with deep volcanic ash soils occurring near F162XY503.
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree (1) Metrosideros polymorpha
(2) Cheirodendron trigynumShrub Not specified
Herbaceous Not specified
Legacy ID
F162XY503HI
Physiographic features
This ecological site occurs on lava flows on sloping mountainsides of shield volcanoes. Lava flows are aa (loose, cobbly) or pahoehoe (smooth, relatively unbroken).
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) Shield volcano
(2) Lava flow
Flooding duration Extremely brief (0.1 to 4 hours) Flooding frequency Very rare to occasional Ponding duration Very brief (4 to 48 hours) Ponding frequency None to occasional Elevation 1200 – 4400 ft Slope 2 – 40 % Water table depth 3 – 60 in Aspect E Climatic features
Average annual precipitation ranges from 80 to 230 inches (2000 to 5750 millimeters). Most of the precipitation falls from November through April. Average annual temperature ranges from 60 to 67 degrees F (15 to 20 degrees C).
Air temperature in Hawaii is buffered by the surrounding ocean so that the range in temperature through the year is narrow. This creates “iso-“ soil temperature regimes in which mean summer and winter temperatures differ by less than 6 degrees C (11 degrees F).
Hawaii lies within the trade wind zone. Significant amounts of moisture are picked up from the ocean by trade winds up to an altitude of more than 6000 feet (very roughly 2000 meters). As the trade winds from the northeast are forced up the mountains of the island their moisture condenses, creating rain on the windward slopes; the leeward side of the island receives little of this moisture.
On the windward side of the island, cool, moist air at higher elevations descends toward the ocean where it meets the trade winds; this process brings night-time rainfall to lower elevation areas.
In winter, low pressure systems often approach the island from the west, producing extensive rainstorms that primarily affect the leeward sides of the island.
Reference: Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998.Table 3 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (average) 370 days Freeze-free period (average) 370 days Precipitation total (average) 240 in BarLineFigure 2. Monthly precipitation range
BarLineFigure 3. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 4. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 5 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) GLENWOOD NO. 2 55.4 [USC00510746], Volcano, HI
">Influencing water features
In some areas of this ecological site (soil map unit 624), Kopua hydrous silty clay loam is closely complexed with Ihope hydrous silt loam. Ihope soils have an aquic soil moisture regime. Soils with aquic conditions are those that currently undergo continuous or periodic saturation and reduction (Soil Survey Staff 1999). The presence of these conditions is indicated in Ihope soils by redoximorphic features, anaerobic conditions, and ponding on the soil surface.<br />
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Ihope soils are in ecological site F162XY505 Isothermic Aquic Forest.Soil features
Typical soils are of three types: highly decomposed plant materials in aa or over pahoehoe; shallow to deep, rapidly weathered volcanic ash deposited on aa or pahoehoe; and very shallow, rapidly weathered volcanic ash deposited over pahoehoe. Most landscape surfaces in this ecological site are young (generally 750 to 5,000 years old). The youngest surfaces (lava flows from 750-3,000 years old) are covered with soils that are derived primarily from highly decomposed plant materials. Older surfaces (lava flows >3,000 years old) are usually covered with soils with much higher ash content than younger soils. These differences in age and/or ash content can affect the nature of the plant community as well as the trafficability by humans and livestock (and therefore disturbance history) of a given site.
Permeability is moderately rapid in soils but can be very slow in underlying pahoehoe. Soil temperature regimes are isothermic. Soil moisture regimes are udic (in most years, not dry for as long as 90 cumulative days).
The volcanic ash soils of the Island of Hawaii are derived mostly from basaltic ash that varies relatively little in chemical composition (Hazlett and Hyndman 1996; Vitousek 2004). Most of these volcanic ash soils are classified as Andisols, which have these general management characteristics: ion exchange capacity that varies with pH, but mostly retaining anions such as nitrate; high phosphorus adsorption, which restricts phosphorus availability to plants; excellent physical properties (low bulk density, good friability, weak stickiness, stable soil aggregates) for cultivation, seedling emergence, and plant root growth; resistance to compaction and an ability to recover from compaction following repeated cycles of wetting and drying; and high capacity to hold water that is available to plants. These characteristics are due to the properties of the parent material, the clay-size noncrystalline materials formed by weathering, and the soil organic matter accumulated during soil formation (Shoji et al. 1993).
Andisols formed on pahoehoe lava can be very shallow to very deep. Pahoehoe is referred to as a “lithic contact,” which is a boundary between soil and underlying material that is coherent, continuous, difficult to dig with a spade, and contains few cracks that can be penetrated by roots (Soil Survey Staff 1999). Pahoehoe is typically very limiting to root penetration due to the spacing and size of cracks. However, this characteristic of pahoehoe is variable, and there are many instances of stands of large trees growing on very shallow and shallow ash soils over pahoehoe.
The lava rock fragments that constitute aa range in size from gravel (2 mm to 76 mm, or up to 3 inches) to stones (250 mm to 600 mm, or 10 to 25 inches), but are primarily gravel and cobbles (76 mm to 250 mm, or 3 to 10 inches). Below the layer of rock fragments is massive lava called “bluerock.” The interstices between rock fragments of Andisols formed in aa are filled with soil from the surface to the blue rock at the bottom of the soil. Some Andisols in aa have few or no rock fragments in the upper horizons, while others may have large amounts of rock fragments in all horizons and on the soil surface.
Soils that are moderately deep (20 to 40 inches, or 50 to 100 cm) or deeper over underlying lava appear to present few or no limits on native, pasture, or weedy vegetation, and it seems to make no difference whether the lava rock is pahoehoe or aa. However, these soils may present some tillage difficulties when formed in aa and containing significant amounts of coarse rock fragments near the surface. Very shallow and shallow ash soils over pahoehoe are sometimes ripped to break up the underlying lava and create a deeper rooting zone.
The organic soils of the Island of Hawaii are classified as Histosols. They were formed mainly in organic material consisting of highly decomposed leaves, twigs, and wood with small amounts of basic volcanic ash, cinders, and weathered lava; this is called highly decomposed parent material. Some of these soils contain slightly or moderately decomposed parent material, especially at or near the soil surface.
Unlike many organic soils such as peat or muck that form in long-term water-saturated conditions, these organic soils form by accumulation and transformation of litter on dry surfaces of lava rock or in gaps between lava rocks. These organic soils are referred to as litter or an O horizon.
All of the Histosols on the Big Island are classified as “euic,” which means they have relatively high base saturation as indicated by a pH of 4.5 or higher; most Big Island Histosols have pH well above this minimum.
Histosols on pahoehoe lava tend to be shallow (less than 20 inches or 50 centimeters) or very shallow (less than 10 inches or 25 centimeters). Pahoehoe is referred to as a “lithic contact,” which is a boundary between soil and underlying material that is coherent, continuous, difficult to dig with a spade, and contains few cracks that can be penetrated by roots (Soil Survey Staff 1999). Pahoehoe is typically very limiting to root penetration due to the spacing and size of cracks. However, this characteristic of pahoehoe is variable, and there are many instances of large trees growing on very shallow and shallow soils over pahoehoe. When depth of soil to pahoehoe is less than 18 cm (7.2 inches), the soil is referred to as “micro.”
The lava rock fragments that constitute aa range in size from gravel (2 mm to 76 mm, or up to 3 inches) to stones (250 mm to 600 mm, or 10 to 25 inches), but are primarily gravel and cobbles (76 mm to 250 mm, or 3 to 10 inches). Below the layer of rock fragments is massive lava called “bluerock.” The interstices between rock fragments of Histosols formed in aa are filled with soil material from the surface to a particular depth, often moderately deep (20 to 40 inches, or 50 to 100 centimeters), but sometimes shallower or deeper depending on the soil series. Between this soil material-filled horizon and the bluerock the interstices contain little or no soil material. However, live roots are often present in this horizon. These soils often support dense forests with large trees despite their unusual conformation. In order to observe the natural state of the soil, one must carefully disassemble the lava rock fragments so as not to allow the soil materials to fall into the gaps below.
Ripping and crushing lava by heavy machinery transforms these organic soils into Arents, which basically means sandy (the “Ar” or arenic; think of a sandy arena) soils with little or no natural horizon development (the “ents” or Entisols). Ripping pahoehoe lava eliminates the root-limiting layer of the lava. Crushing of ripped pahoehoe fragments or aa reduces the size of the fragments and the gaps between them and creates some finer, sand-sized particles. As much as 50% of the original organic matter can be lost in this process due to oxidation, but the resulting Arents are more suitable for agricultural operations. Arents are very susceptible to weed invasion, but there have been apparently successful attempts at restoration of native plant species.Table 4. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Organic material – aa lava
(2) Basaltic volcanic ash – pahoehoe lava
Surface texture (1) Hydrous silty clay loam
(2) Medial loam
(3) Ashy
Family particle size (1) Loamy
Drainage class Somewhat poorly drained to well drained Permeability class Very slow to moderately rapid Soil depth 2 – 60 in Surface fragment cover <=3" 0 – 15 % Surface fragment cover >3" 0 – 40 % Available water capacity
(0-40in)1 – 4 in Calcium carbonate equivalent
(0-40in)Not specified Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)0 – 2 mmhos/cm Sodium adsorption ratio
(0-40in)Not specified Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-40in)4 – 6.7 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 55 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 60 % Ecological dynamics
States and community phases within this ecological site were differentiated by inspection of data; ordination programs were not available. They were verified by professional consensus and consistent examples in the field.
The information in this ecological site description (ESD), including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed using archaeological and historical data, professional experience, and scientific studies. The information is representative of a complex set of plant communities. Not all scenarios or plants are included. Key indicator plants, animals, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.
States and community phases within this ecological site were differentiated by inspection of data; ordination programs were not available. They were verified by professional consensus and observation of examples in the field.
Natural Disturbances
The natural (not human-caused) disturbances most important for discussion in this ecological site are lava flows, natural fires, volcanic ash falls, and wind throw.
A lava flow obviously destroys all the vegetation it covers. The lava flows in this ecological site create a matrix of age, width, lava type, degree of ash accumulation, climate, and nearby seed sources that create much of the variability observed here. Flows on this ecological site range from 750 to 5,000 years old. This is a sufficient length of time for development of soils that support the typical vegetation, although the youngest flows of the ecological site will have less developed soils and vegetation than other areas.
Regrowth of vegetation through primary succession and formation of new soil proceed at widely varying rates depending on flow age, local climate, lava type (aa or pahoehoe), and proximity of seed sources. Flows located in warm, moist climates such as this are soon colonized by vascular plants, including ohia lehua trees. In these environments, considerable vegetation can be established in periods measured in decades. Cobbly aa lava provides safe sites for seed germination as well as sites that promote plant rooting and soil accumulation in the gaps between cobbles. This is a more favorable situation for revegetation and soil development than flat, bare pahoehoe lava. Where lava flows are narrow or where kipukas (areas of land surrounded by younger lava) occur, revegetation is hastened by the proximity of seed sources from intact vegetation stands nearby.
In general, younger flows have received smaller inputs of volcanic ash than older flows. Soil parent materials on these younger soils typically consist of decomposed organic material with small amounts of volcanic ash. Soils on older flows are more likely to be mineral soils composed largely of volcanic ash.
Vegetation can be killed by erupted layers of ash depending on the temperature of the ash and the depth of accumulation. However, vegetation sometimes survives ash flows (Vitousek 2004). Vegetation rapidly recovers because ash flow deposits possess physical and chemical properties favorable to plant growth, including high water holding capacity, high surface area, rapid weathering, and favorable mineral nutrient content. New soils develop very rapidly in ash deposits, and further soil development is facilitated in turn by the rapidly-developing vegetation (Shoji et al. 1993). Future ash falls may occur here; past ash flows are old enough for soils and vegetation to have developed to the typical range for this ecological site.
To some extent, lava flows may start wildfires, but this is not a frequent occurrence. Wildfires started by lightning may occur occasionally but are unlikely to carry far due to the moist environment.
Wind throw of vegetation can occur during hurricanes or other high wind events.
Human Disturbances
Human-related disturbances have been much more important than natural disturbances in this ecological site since the arrival of Polynesians and, later, Europeans. This is reflected in the State and Transition Model Diagram.
Humans arrived in the Hawaiian Islands 1200 to 1500 years ago. Their population gradually increased so that by 1600 AD at least 80% of all the lands in Hawaii below about 1500 feet (roughly 500 meters) in elevation had been extensively altered by humans (Kirch 1982); some pollen core data suggest that up to 100% of lowlands may have been altered (Athens 1997). By the time of European contact late in the 18th century, the Polynesians had developed high population densities and placed extensive areas under intensive agriculture (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). Prehistoric native lowland forest disturbance can be attributed to clearing for agriculture by hand or by fire, introduction of new plants, diseases, and animals, and wood harvesting (Athens 1997). Much of this ecological site occurs at higher elevations above areas that supported high human populations and intensive agriculture.
After the arrival of Europeans, documentary evidence attests to accelerated and extensive deforestation, erosion, siltation, and changes in local weather patterns (Kirch 1983) due to more intensive land use, modern tools, and introduction of more plant, animal, and microbe species.
This ecological site evolved without the presence of large mammals. The Polynesians introduced dogs, Pacific rats, and small pigs to the islands. Cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and larger European pigs were introduced in the final decades of the 18th century. These animals ranged free on the islands, becoming very numerous and destructive by the early decades of the 19th century. By 1851, records reported severe overstocking of pastures, lack of fences, and large numbers of feral livestock (Henke 1929). Today, some of this ecological site is utilized for cattle ranching.
Through the 20th and into the 21st centuries, increases in human populations with attendant urban development, as well as accelerated introduction of non-native mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, plants, and microorganisms, have brought about dramatic changes to wild ecosystems in Hawaii.
Parts of the original forest plant community are now disturbed and fragmented due to agriculture, establishment of introduced timber tree species, domestic and feral ungulate foraging, and invasion by introduced plant, animal, and microbe species. Foraging by cattle and pigs or clearing and abandonment accelerate invasion by weeds. However, weeds appear able to successfully invade native stands regardless of human or ungulate disturbances.
The naturalized forage grasslands in this ecological site become infested with unpalatable grasses and shrubs under conditions of improper grazing management.State and transition model
Custom diagramStandard diagram
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
States 1, 6 and 7 (additional transitions)
States 2 and 5 (additional transitions)
State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 5 submodel, plant communities
State 6 submodel, plant communities
State 7 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference StateThe Reference State consists of one community phase. Rainfall and temperature vary based on elevation, while substrate varies by lava flow type (aa versus pahoehoe) and age. This produces a matrix of natural variability that changes over a scale of decades and centuries as soils and vegetation communities develop. Overlaid on this matrix are more localized variations caused by wind throw, tree death, and propagule availability. New lava flows bring about a return to primary succession that proceeds at different rates due to lava type and climate.
Parts of this ecological site has been cleared for livestock grazing, either mechanically or simply by allowing livestock to graze and browse the native understory. This represents a transition to State 2 Naturalized Grassland. Clearing the forest and then planting introduced timber tree species results in a transition to either State 3 Tree Plantation with Invaded Understory or State 6 Tree Plantation with Native Understory, depending on local availability of seeds for native or invasive introduced species. Gradual invasion by introduced species into existing forest results in State 4 Native Forest with Invaded Understory.Community 1.1
`Ohi`a lehua/hapu`u/`ie`ie
Figure 6. Reference community phase. 9/19/06 D Clausnitzer MU613
Figure 7. Example along Puu Oo Trail. 3/23/05 D Clausnitzer MU651
Figure 8. Closeup of ground cover. 9/19/06 D Clausnitzer MU613
Figure 9. Understory closeup. 9/19/06 D Clausnitzer MU613
Figure 10. Young lava flow; transitional from R160XY006. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This community phase is a forest with a closed overstory of ohia trees 40 to 60 feet (12 to 18 meters) tall and 8 to 12 inches (3 to 5 centimeters) diameter at breast height, an open secondary canopy of diverse trees species 15 to 25 feet (4.5 to 8 meters) tall, a tree fern canopy 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 meters) tall with 30 to 70 percent cover, and a very diverse understory of shrubs, herbs, and ferns. Vines are abundant, particularly ieie, both on the ground and on trees. These forests have standing live timber of 3000 to 5000 cubic feet per acre, with a representative value of about 4000 cubic feet per acre.
Koa trees occur in limited areas in the northern and western parts of this ecological site where seed sources from older koa-ohia forests on ash soils on Mauna Kea or Mauna Loa exist. Koa are able to grow on the common soils in this ecological site where light levels are high enough.Forest overstory.<br /> The uppermost forest canopy consists primarily of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). The overstory typically is 40 to 60 feet (12 to 18 meters) tall, although taller trees exist in this ecological site. Loulu (Pritchardia beccariana) and kawau (Ilex anomala) sometimes grow into the overstory.
Forest understory. The most common secondary canopy tree species are olapa or olapalapa (Cheirodendron trigynum), kawau (Ilex anomala), hame (Antidesma platyphyllum), and kopiko (Psychotria spp.). <br /> <br /> The tertiary canopy contains small trees but is dominated by two species of hapuu or tree ferns, hapuu (Cibotium glaucum) and hapuu ii or hapuu li (Cibotium menziesii). Cibotium glaucum is the more abundant of the two species. Hapuu or Chamisso’s manfern (Cibotium chamissoi) is present but uncommon.<br /> <br /> The lowest canopy stratum, which ranges in height from the ground to about 4.5 feet (1.5 meters), consists of seedlings and immature individuals of species in the taller strata, small shrub species, forbs, vines (some prostrate, some climbing, some both), and sedges. Ferns and fern allies are both abundant and highly diverse; they grow both on the ground and on tree trunks..<br /> <br /> Areas on organic soils on the youngest (<200 years) lava flows (particularly on pahoehoe lava) within this ecological site have lower stature forests with more abundant cover of the three uluhe fern species (Dicranopteris linearis, Sticherus owhyhensis, and Diplopterigium pinnatum). Abundance of early successional species (e.g., Myrsine sandwicensis, Hedyotis centranthioides, and Sadleria) and shrubs (e.g., Vaccinium calycinum) is high. However, populations of most of the characteristic forest species are present. Given the high rainfall and temperatures on these sites, it can be predicted that these sites will develop into forests more typical of the ecological site within a few hundred years.
Table 5. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover 0-0% Shrub/vine/liana basal cover 0-0% Grass/grasslike basal cover 0% Forb basal cover 0.5-1.0% Non-vascular plants 50-60% Biological crusts 0% Litter 20-30% Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" 0-10% Surface fragments >3" 0-30% Bedrock 0% Water 0% Bare ground 0-0% Table 6. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) – Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) 0-1% Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) 0-1% Tree snags** (hard***) – Tree snags** (soft***) – Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre * Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 7. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) Tree Shrub/Vine Grass/
GrasslikeForb <0.5 0% 0% 0% 1-2% >0.5 <= 1 0% 1-2% 0-1% 5-10% >1 <= 2 0-1% 1-2% 0-1% 10-15% >2 <= 4.5 1-2% 5-10% – 1-5% >4.5 <= 13 45-55% 1-2% – – >13 <= 40 35-45% 3-5% – – >40 <= 80 40-50% – – – >80 <= 120 0-1% – – – >120 – – – – State 2
Naturalized Grassland StateThis state is comprised of three community phases that may or may not have a sparse canopy of remnant native trees (usually ohia lehua). Trees in these grasslands provide shade and protection from the elements to livestock. However, very little regeneration of trees occurs, so the trees will eventually die out.
Community phase 2.1 consists of planted forage grasses. Continuous grazing that does not allow favored forage species time to recover from defoliation results in community phase 2.2, which is dominated by lower value forage species but contains enough desirable forage grasses to allow for a transition back to community phase 2.1 with prescribed grazing. Longer-term continuous grazing leads to community phase 2.3, which consists of low value grass species and increasing cover of weedy tree saplings, shrubs, and vines. Improvement of this community phase requires weed control and restoration of desirable grasses in addition to prescribed grazing.
Due to the shallow soils and high rainfall of this ecological site, land clearing operations that pile slash in such a way as to block subtle, natural drainage pathways can cause seasonal flooding and ponding.Community 2.1
Para grass/ticktrefoil
Figure 11. Naturalized grassland. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This community phase is maintained by grazing, which keeps preferred species from becoming too tall or dense, and adequate recovery periods, which ensure vigor and cover of preferred species. High production of preferred grass species and extensive cover allow for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality. These factors are degraded by grazing practices that result in loss of preferred grass species leading to increase in less desirable grasses, weed invasion, and an increase in the extent of bare soil.
Invasion by broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) and beardgrass or Colombian bluestem (Schizachyrium condensatum) may be kept in check by increasing soil pH through lime applications and by mowing these tall, weedy grasses before they set seed.Forest overstory.Scattered ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) or, occasionally, other native trees may be present.
Forest understory. The typical dominant grass species are para grass or Californiagrass (Urochloa mutica), pangolagrass (Digitaria eriantha), or limpograss (Hemarthria altissima), with an admixture of leguminous desmodium (Desmodium spp.).
Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Community 2.2
Broomsedge bluestem - hilograss
Figure 13. Infestation of bluestem broomsedge. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This community phase is dominated by grasses of low forage value, along with partridge pea and sensitive plant. Desirable forage legumes are rare. Cattle can be maintained on these grasslands, but animal growth and vigor will be reduced. Also, the number of weedy species is high, and their stature, seed production potential, and wide distribution can lead to rapid increase and a shift to community phase 2.3 unless management is improved.
Forest overstory.Scattered ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) or, occasionally, other native trees may be present.
Forest understory. The most common grasses are Hilograss (Paspalum conjugatum), common carpetgrass (Axonopus fissifolius), and sedges. Desmodium species are rare. Sourbush (Pluchea carolinensis) as well as strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) and common guava (Psidium guajava) are common.
Table 8. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover 0% Shrub/vine/liana basal cover 0.0-0.5% Grass/grasslike basal cover 30-40% Forb basal cover 0% Non-vascular plants 0-0% Biological crusts 0% Litter 60-70% Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" 0-10% Surface fragments >3" 0-10% Bedrock 0% Water 0% Bare ground 10-10% Table 9. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) Tree Shrub/Vine Grass/
GrasslikeForb <0.5 0% 0% 1-5% 0-1% >0.5 <= 1 0% 0-1% 40-60% 1-2% >1 <= 2 0-1% 3-5% 5-10% 2-3% >2 <= 4.5 0-1% 1-2% 30-40% 1-2% >4.5 <= 13 1-1% – – – >13 <= 40 0-1% – – – >40 <= 80 0-1% – – – >80 <= 120 – – – – >120 – – – – Community 2.3
Strawberry guava/Asian melastome/hilograss
Figure 14. Weedy grassland. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This community phase is dominated by grass species that have little forage value. Weedy forbs, shrubs, and vines are common. Introduced shrubs and small trees are common, and seedlings and saplings of introduced tree species are present. The abundance of immature trees with potential mature heights of 20 to over 100 feet (6 to over 30 meters) indicates a risk of transition to State 5 Invaded Overstory and Understory.
Forest overstory.Scattered ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) or, occasionally, other native trees may be present.<br /> <br />
Forest understory. Strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) is becoming abundant, ranging from seedlings to 20 feet (6 meters) tall. Common guava (Psidium guajava) may also be present. Seedlings, saplings, and larger specimens of albizia (Falcataria moluccana) are becoming common. Shrubs such as glorybush (Melastoma candidum), Koster’s curse (Clidemia hirta), and sourbush (Pluchea carolinensis) may be present in varying amounts and combinations, along with vines such as thimbleberry (Rubus rosifolius) and yellow raspberry (Rubus ellipticus). Weedy grasses are abundant along with a variety of introduced forbs and ferns. Thickets of uluhe (Dicranopteris linearis) are common.
Table 10. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover 0% Shrub/vine/liana basal cover 30-40% Grass/grasslike basal cover 50-60% Forb basal cover 20-30% Non-vascular plants 0-0% Biological crusts 0% Litter 60-70% Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" 0-10% Surface fragments >3" 0-10% Bedrock 0% Water 0% Bare ground 0-10% Table 11. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) – Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) 0-1% Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) 0-1% Tree snags** (hard***) – Tree snags** (soft***) – Tree snag count** (hard***) Tree snag count** (hard***) * Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 12. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) Tree Shrub/Vine Grass/
GrasslikeForb <0.5 0% 0-1% 1-2% 1-2% >0.5 <= 1 0% 0-1% 10-20% 5-10% >1 <= 2 1-1% 1-2% 20-30% 10-15% >2 <= 4.5 1-2% 3-5% 10-15% – >4.5 <= 13 5-10% – – – >13 <= 40 0-1% – – – >40 <= 80 0-1% – – – >80 <= 120 – – – – >120 – – – – Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2
Para grass/ticktrefoil
Broomsedge bluestem - hilograssCommunity phase 2.1 changes to community phase 2.2 by continuous grazing that weakens preferred forages in relation to less desirable forage species such as Hilograss (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=PACO14" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Paspalum conjugatum</i></a>), common carpetgrass (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=AXFI" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Axonopus fissifolius</i></a>), and sedges. Undesirable forbs also increase under these conditions.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1
Broomsedge bluestem - hilograss
Para grass/ticktrefoilCommunity phase 2.2 can be reconverted to phase 2.1 by prescribed grazing. A prescribed grazing plan provides for intensive but temporary grazing of pastures that ensures that cattle consume some low-value forage species along with preferred forages and allows preferred forages time to recover from defoliation. The grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing.
Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3
Broomsedge bluestem - hilograss
Strawberry guava/Asian melastome/hilograssCommunity phase 2.2 degrades to community phase 2.3 by long-term continuous grazing. Desirable forages have largely been replaced by low-value grasses. Weedy forbs, blackberries, shrubs and trees have increased.
Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1
Strawberry guava/Asian melastome/hilograss
Para grass/ticktrefoilThis community phase can be converted to phase 2.1 by a combination of weed control, prescribed grazing, and replanting of desirable forage species. Improving the grazing regime is unlikely to shift this phase to a more productive grassland phase due to the abundance and persistence of weeds. Herbicide treatments are needed to reduce weed abundance. Reseeding of desired forages may be needed, along with removal of livestock until desired species have regained dominance. Thereafter, the grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing.
State 3
Tree Plantation with Invaded UnderstoryThis state has its origin in sites that were cleared of native forest in the mid- to late-20th century and planted to introduced timber species that were considered to be more valuable and useful than native forest species. More recently, previously cleared areas have been planted to timber species. In either case, invasion of the understory by weedy introduced species is a likelihood in most locations. Weeds from seed sources surrounding these sites or brought in unintentionally by humans and animals invaded these sites and now dominate the understory where ongoing weed control has not been practiced.
Once established, this state has little tendency to transition to another state.Community 3.1
Exotic timber species - strawberry guava/Asian melastome
Figure 15. Timber trees with strawberry guava understory. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This community is typically managed for long term economic returns. Many introduced timber species will potentially grow well in the environment of this ecological site, where they may be free of pests that are present in their native habitats.
Many examples of this phase have not received ongoing management since their establishment.Forest overstory.Timber species that were established in the past are toon or Australian redcedar (Toona ciliata), tropical ash (Fraxinus uhdei), Queensland maple (Flindersia brayleyana), rosegum eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis), and saligna eucalyptus (Eucalyptus saligna).<br /> <br /> Other valuable species can be planted, for example African mahogany (Khaya senegalensis), Honduran mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), and Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata). Still other species may be grown in this ecological site.
Forest understory. Common understory species are strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum), kahili ginger (Hedychium gardnerianum), Koster’s curse (Clidemia hirta), and glorybush (Tibouchina urvilleana). These species grow very densely and are difficult to control.
Table 13. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover 0-10% Shrub/vine/liana basal cover 0.5-1.0% Grass/grasslike basal cover 0% Forb basal cover 0% Non-vascular plants 0-10% Biological crusts 0% Litter 70-80% Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" 0-10% Surface fragments >3" 0-20% Bedrock 0% Water 0% Bare ground 0-0% Table 14. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) – Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) 0-1% Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) 0-1% Tree snags** (hard***) – Tree snags** (soft***) – Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre * Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 15. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) Tree Shrub/Vine Grass/
GrasslikeForb <0.5 0% 0-1% 0-1% 0% >0.5 <= 1 0% 0-1% 1-2% 1-2% >1 <= 2 1-1% 2-3% 3-5% 3-5% >2 <= 4.5 3-5% 5-10% 1-2% – >4.5 <= 13 15-25% 15-25% – – >13 <= 40 35-45% 3-5% – – >40 <= 80 65-75% – – – >80 <= 120 1-2% – – – >120 – – – – State 4
Invaded Understory StateThis state consists of one community phase. It arises by invasion by introduced species of intact native forest (the Reference State) or, in some cases, of native overstory stands from which the original understory has been cleared. Native species are unable to regenerate in the highly competitive understory of introduced plants and eventually die out. With time, large introduced tree species will emerge to replace the native overstory trees. When this last step has occurred, the site will have transitioned to State 5, Invaded Overstory and Understory State.
Disturbance of the soil and direct damage to native understory plants by introduced ungulates, particularly pigs and cattle, will speed the transition to this state by killing native plants and by creating better germination sites for introduced species.
Restoration to the Reference State or a facsimile of it is possible by fencing the site, removing all ungulates, applying herbicides, and replanting native species when needed. Restoration efforts will be affected by the degree of invasion by introduced species and by the particular species that have invaded the site. Long term weed management and fence maintenance will be necessary.Community 4.1
`Ohi`a lehua - strawberry guava/Asian melastome
Figure 16. Ohia lehua with kahili ginger understory. 4/f18/06 D Clausnitzer generic photo
The community has an intact or diminished overstory of large ohia lehua with a dense understory of introduced shrubs, ferns, vines, grasses, and small trees. Most native species are unable to regenerate in this plant community and eventually die out.
Forest overstory.The overstory consists of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha).
Forest understory. Secondary canopy native species are usually somewhat diminished or nonexistent. Kopiko or wild coffee (Psychotria spp.) often remains in the secondary canopy.<br /> <br /> The only native species remaining in the lower canopy levels are a few hapuu (Cibotium glaucum) or hapuu li (Cibotium menziesii), a few small kopiko (Psychotria spp.) trees, some peperomia (Peperomia spp.) at ground level, an occasional ieie vine (Freycenetia arborea), and a few patches of uluhe or Old World forkedfern (Dicranopteris linearis). Some small native fern species may be found growing on trees.<br /> <br /> The understory is usually dominated by a nearly impenetrable stand of strawberry guava or waiawi (Psidium cattleianum), which can be 10 to about 30 feet (3 to 9 meters) tall. Glorybush (Melastoma candidum) may also be abundant. Scaly swordfern (Nephrolepis hirsutula) may form dense stands.
Table 16. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover 0-0% Shrub/vine/liana basal cover 0% Grass/grasslike basal cover 0-0% Forb basal cover 0.5-1.0% Non-vascular plants 20-30% Biological crusts 0% Litter 60-70% Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" 0-10% Surface fragments >3" 0-20% Bedrock 0% Water 0% Bare ground 0-0% Table 17. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) – Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) 0-1% Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) 0-1% Tree snags** (hard***) – Tree snags** (soft***) – Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre * Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 18. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) Tree Shrub/Vine Grass/
GrasslikeForb <0.5 0% 0% 0-1% 1-2% >0.5 <= 1 0% 1-2% 3-5% 3-5% >1 <= 2 1-2% 1-2% 3-5% 10-15% >2 <= 4.5 3-5% 10-25% 3-5% 10-15% >4.5 <= 13 5-10% 15-20% – – >13 <= 40 15-25% 3-5% – – >40 <= 80 30-60% – – – >80 <= 120 – – – – >120 – – – – State 5
Invaded Overstory and Understory StateThis state is comprised of one community phase dominated by introduced species in both the overstory and understory. Remnant individuals of a few native species may persist. This state might be considered a dead end as far as further succession or transition to another state.
Restoration to a facsimile of the Reference State could probably be done with expensive and intensive practices followed by long-term weed management. The site would need to be cleared of all vegetation except any remnant native species, which essentially would represent a transition to State 2 Grassland. From State 2, further restoration could be pursued to State 1 Reference. Clearing of the site followed by establishment of an overstory of noninvasive, introduced timber trees with a native understory as an intermediate step to native forest restoration may be done.Community 5.1
Strawberry guava
Figure 17. Forest of introduced species. 9/2/04 D Clausnitzer MU735
Figure 18. Dense strawberry guava stand tilted up by bulldozer. D Clausnitzer generic photo
Figure 19. Closeup of exposed strawberry guava root system. D Clausnitzer generic photo
It is possible that shifts will eventually occur in the introduced species that dominate the site, particularly if introduced, tall-statured tree species are present. This would change the mix of species present and may affect soil characteristics such as nitrate availability or organic matter decomposition, but would not represent a transition to another state. Sites that are completely dominated by dense stands of strawberry guava typically show no indications, such as death or partial death of stands or emergence of potentially taller tree species, of yielding to change in the foreseeable future.
Strawberry guava is typically the dominant tree species because it invades sites by seeds spread by pigs and reproduces vegetatively by root suckers. Strawberry guava can persist under shady overstories. Common guava eventually dies out when overtopped by a dense overstory.
A more diverse plant community is also possible that consists of a variety of taller introduced trees, guavas, and a dense understory of introduced shrubs, grasses, vines, and ferns.Forest overstory.Depending on local seed sources, invasive trees of moderate stature including strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) or common guava (Psidium guajava) can dominate a given site initially, but strawberry guava generally becomes dominant over time.<br /> <br /> Taller statured introduced trees including albizia or peacocksplume (Falcataria moluccana) or melaleuca (Melaleuca quinquenervia) could potentially emerge through the canopy of moderate stature species. <br /> <br /> Remnant ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) often remain as emergents above the canopy of introduced species, but seedlings or saplings are unlikely to be present.
Forest understory. The tree overstory species are highly competitive and produce dense shade. A variety of introduced understory species is often present but in small numbers. Typical species include Koster’s curse or soapbush (Clidemia hirta), glorybush (Melastoma candidum), yellow raspberry (Rubus ellipticus), scaly swordfern (Nephrolepis hirsutula), and palmgrass (Setaria palmifolia).<br /> <br /> Scattered individuals of native species such as kopiko (Psychotria spp.), hapuu (Cibotium glaucum), and uluhe (Dicranopteris linearis) may remain in the understory.
Table 19. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover 0-0% Shrub/vine/liana basal cover 0% Grass/grasslike basal cover 0-0% Forb basal cover 0% Non-vascular plants 10-20% Biological crusts 0% Litter 70-80% Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" 0-10% Surface fragments >3" 0-20% Bedrock 0% Water 0% Bare ground 0-0% Table 20. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) – Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) 1-2% Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) 2-3% Tree snags** (hard***) – Tree snags** (soft***) – Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre * Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 21. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) Tree Shrub/Vine Grass/
GrasslikeForb <0.5 0% 0% 0-1% 0-1% >0.5 <= 1 0% 0-1% 1-3% 1-2% >1 <= 2 1-1% 0-1% 1-5% 3-5% >2 <= 4.5 5-10% 0-1% – 0-1% >4.5 <= 13 30-40% – – – >13 <= 40 40-50% – – – >40 <= 80 10-30% – – – >80 <= 120 – – – – >120 – – – – State 6
Tree Plantation with Native Understory StateThis state is comprised of one community phase dominated by introduced timber trees. It results from clearing the original native forest, often without fundamentally altering the soil, and planting introduced trees. When the surrounding area is native forest with few weeds, native species gradually repopulate the plantation site.
This state has its origin in sites that were cleared of native forest in the mid- to late-20th century and planted to introduced timber species that were considered to be more valuable and useful than native forest species. Some of these plantations were deep in the native forest and not near sources of introduced weeds.Community 6.1
Exotic timber species/hapu`u
Figure 20. Tropical ash with partial native understory. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This community is typically managed for long term economic returns. Many introduced timber species will potentially grow well in the environment of this ecological site, where they may be free of pests that are present in their native habitats.
Many examples of this phase have not received ongoing management since their establishment.
The eventual condition of this community phase depends on the tree species that was planted and now dominates the overstory and, if some weeds are present, ongoing management to control them.Forest overstory.Timber species that were established in the past are toon or Australian redcedar (Toona ciliata), tropical ash (Fraxinus uhdei), Queensland maple (Flindersia brayleyana), rosegum eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis), and saligna eucalyptus (Eucalyptus saligna).<br /> <br /> Other valuable species can be planted, for example African mahogany (Khaya senegalensis), Honduran mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), and Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata). Still other species may be grown in this ecological site.
Forest understory. The tree ferns hapuu (Cibotium glaucum) and hapuu ii (C. menziesii) are common. Common secondary and tertiary canopy trees are ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), kopiko (Psychotria spp.), kolea lau nui (Myrsine lessertiana), pilo (Coprosma spp.), olomea (Perrottetia sandwicensis), and olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum). A number of native fern species are likely to be present. A population of strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) is likely to be present.
Table 22. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover 0-10% Shrub/vine/liana basal cover 0% Grass/grasslike basal cover 0% Forb basal cover 0% Non-vascular plants 0-10% Biological crusts 0% Litter 70-80% Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" 0-10% Surface fragments >3" 0-20% Bedrock 0% Water 0% Bare ground 0-0% Table 23. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) – Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) 0-1% Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) 0-1% Tree snags** (hard***) – Tree snags** (soft***) – Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre * Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 24. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) Tree Shrub/Vine Grass/
GrasslikeForb <0.5 0% 0% – 0-1% >0.5 <= 1 0% 0% – 0-1% >1 <= 2 1-2% 0% – 3-5% >2 <= 4.5 1-2% 1-1% – 0-1% >4.5 <= 13 60-70% – – – >13 <= 40 0-2% – – – >40 <= 80 80-90% – – – >80 <= 120 – – – – >120 – – – – State 7
Uluhe-Invaded StateThis state is comprised of one community phase. It forms where disturbance has cleared the original forest but introduced plant species are not abundant, allowing uluhe to cover the ground. It also occurs on lava flows, particularly pahoehoe, that are relatively young. Young lava flows are dated in ranges of hundreds of years, so flows that are within a given age group vary enough in this warm, moist environment to exhibit variation in the nature of the plant communities growing on them.
Community 7.1
`Ohi`a lehua/Old World forked fern (uluhe)
Figure 21. Dense thicket of uluhe fern. 9/14/06 D Clausnitzer MU651
This community phase is dominated by dense thickets of uluhe fern with emergent native trees and tree ferns.
Forest overstory.The overstory consists of a sparse to open canopy of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) and occasionally scattered koa (Acacia koa). Scattered olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum), kolea lau nui (Myrsine lessertiana), and kopiko (Psychotria sp.) are often present.
Forest understory. Uluhe fern thickets grow up to about 10 feet (3 meters) high and are extremely dense; they consist mostly of uluhe (Dicranopteris linearis), commonly with some uluhe or Hawaii umbrella fern (Sticherus owhyhensis) and small amounts of uluhe lau nui (Diplopterigium pinnatum).<br /> <br /> In addition to the overstory trees mentioned in the Forest Overstory narrative, other common species that reproduce within, and sometimes emerge through, the fern thicket are olomea (Perrottetia sandwicensis), kolea lau lii (Myrsine sandwicensis), mamaki (Pipturus albidus), hapuu (Cibotium glaucum), and huahekili uka (Scaevola kilaueae).<br /> <br /> Also common are oha wai (Clermontia sp.), pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae), forest starviolet (Hedyotis centranthioides), and some smaller ferns and sedges.<br />
Table 25. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover 0-0% Shrub/vine/liana basal cover 0% Grass/grasslike basal cover 0% Forb basal cover 0.5-1.0% Non-vascular plants 10-20% Biological crusts 0% Litter 80-90% Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" 0-10% Surface fragments >3" 0-10% Bedrock 0% Water 0% Bare ground 0-0% Table 26. Woody ground cover
Downed wood, fine-small (<0.40" diameter; 1-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-medium (0.40-0.99" diameter; 10-hour fuels) – Downed wood, fine-large (1.00-2.99" diameter; 100-hour fuels) – Downed wood, coarse-small (3.00-8.99" diameter; 1,000-hour fuels) 0% Downed wood, coarse-large (>9.00" diameter; 10,000-hour fuels) – Tree snags** (hard***) – Tree snags** (soft***) – Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre Tree snag count** (hard***) 0-0 per acre * Decomposition Classes: N - no or little integration with the soil surface; I - partial to nearly full integration with the soil surface.
** >10.16cm diameter at 1.3716m above ground and >1.8288m height--if less diameter OR height use applicable down wood type; for pinyon and juniper, use 0.3048m above ground.
*** Hard - tree is dead with most or all of bark intact; Soft - most of bark has sloughed off.
Table 27. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) Tree Shrub/Vine Grass/
GrasslikeForb <0.5 0% 0% 0% 0-1% >0.5 <= 1 0% 0% 0-1% 1-2% >1 <= 2 0% 0% 0-1% 1-2% >2 <= 4.5 0% 0% – 15-25% >4.5 <= 13 1-2% 1-1% – 25-35% >13 <= 40 5-30% – – – >40 <= 80 – – – – >80 <= 120 – – – – >120 – – – – Transition T1A
State 1 to 2State 1, Reference State, can transition to State 2, Naturalized Grassland, by clearing the forest with heavy machinery or by gradual clearing by allowing cattle access to the forest. Cattle eventually eat or destroy understory ferns, forbs, shrubs, and saplings, opening up the forest so that forage grasses will thrive.
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3State 1 Reference can transition to State 3 Tree Plantation with Invaded Understory by mechanical removal of the original forest overstory and understory followed by planting of introduced timber species. This was done extensively in the 1960s. When the surrounding area is infested with introduced weeds such as Koster’s curse (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CLHI3" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Clidemia hirta</i></a>), strawberry guava (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=PSCA" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Psidium cattleianum</i></a>), or kahili ginger (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=HEGA" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Hedychium gardnerianum</i></a>), those species will invade the site and dominate the understory unless controlled by herbicides.
Transition T1C
State 1 to 4State 1 Reference State can transition to State 4 Native Forest with Invaded Understory by gradual replacement of the understory by introduced shrubs, vines, and small trees that outcompete the native understory species. This process is accelerated by ungulate foraging that disturbs the soil surface and directly destroys native plants and prevents their regeneration.
Transition T1D
State 1 to 6State 1 Reference State can transition to State 6 Tree Plantation with Native Understory by mechanical removal of the original forest overstory and understory followed by planting of introduced timber species. This was done extensively in the 1960s. When the surrounding area contains native understory species and is fairly weed-free, native plants such as tree ferns, ieie vines, native ferns, and small native trees reestablish themselves beneath the canopies of many introduced timber species. The ultimate plant community that will develop over time unknown.
Transition T1E
State 1 to 7State 1 Reference State can transition to State 7 Uluhe Invaded State by mechanical land clearing followed by abandonment or by wildfire in areas in which weeds are not prevalent. Native tree species are able to emerge through the resulting uluhe thicket.
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1It is possible to restore a facsimile of the Reference State from Naturalized Grassland. Weed control must be applied to grass species and the many introduced plant species that will invade the site. Native uluhe fern (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=DILI" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Dicranopteris linearis</i></a>) that may be present in State 2 should be retained for restoration purposes. Weed control will be a perpetual process to capture and maintain the site, with the intensity of control depending on the proximity of weed seed sources. Foraging ungulates, both domestic and feral, must be excluded from the restoration site, but domestic ungulates are useful to initially reduce grass cover and afterward to manage vegetation outside the restoration site perimeter. Extensive planting of native species would follow.
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3This state may transition to State 3 Tree Plantation with Invaded Understory by herbicidal control of grasses and weeds, removal of ungulates, and then establishment of introduced timber species. Gradual weed invasion and regrowth creates an understory dominated by introduced trees, shrubs, grasses, and ferns. It may be possible to develop silvopasture systems that would combine timber production with cattle grazing; this system would control weeds and maintain an understory of introduced forage grasses.
Transition T2B
State 2 to 5Abandonment of State 2 Naturalized Grassland leads to invasion by, and rapid growth of, introduced tree species leading to transition to State 5 Invaded Overstory and Understory.
Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1It is possible to restore a facsimile of State 1 Reference from State 4 Invaded Understory. Before restoration of native plants, introduced understory plants must be eliminated by herbicidal weed control practices, and ungulates must be excluded from the restoration site by a suitable fence. Native species that have been eliminated or greatly reduced in numbers must be restored by replanting. Biodegradable mulch such as cardboard covered with plant litter is very useful for weed control around replanted native species. Long-term control of weeds will be necessary.
Transition T4A
State 4 to 2This state may transition to State 2 Naturalized Grassland by mechanical clearing of weedy and remnant native understory plants; native overstory trees may be harvested for timber, destroyed, or left for shade. If leaving large native trees for shade, care must be taken to not damage roots within about 20 feet (6 meters) of the trees. Introduced forage grasses may then be seeded into the site. Herbicide applications will be necessary before and during pasture establishment to control reemerging weed species.
Transition T4B
State 4 to 5The large native ohia lehua and koa trees that form the overstory of State 4 Invaded Understory State are unable to successfully regenerate due to the very dense, shady understory of introduced species. Eventually the large native trees die and are replaced by introduced tree species, which is a transition to State 5 Invaded Overstory and Understory.
Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 2State 5 Invaded Overstory and Understory may be restored to State 2 Naturalized Grassland by mechanical clearing of overstory and understory vegetation. Introduced forage grasses would then be seeded into the site. Herbicide applications will be necessary before and during establishment of grasses to control reemerging weed species.
Restoration pathway R6A
State 6 to 1Some introduced timber species appear to reproduce successfully in the understory, so the eventual trajectory of this state, if not actively managed, is unknown. Careful removal of introduced species would result in restoration to a facsimile of the Reference state.
Restoration pathway R7A
State 7 to 1With few weeds present, this state would be expected to restore itself to State 1 Reference as emergent tree and tree fern canopies become dense enough to shade out uluhe, allowing more rapid establishment of trees, shrubs, and small ferns. If some introduced weeds are present during this gradual restoration period, timely weed control would be needed.
Additional community tables
Table 28. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 29. Community 1.1 forest overstory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height ft Canopy cover (%) Diameter in Basal area (square ft/acre) Tree'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 40-80 40-50 8-24 0 'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 13-40 15-25 – 0 wild coffee PSYCH Psychotria Native 13-25 5-10 – 0 Hawai'i holly ILAN Ilex anomala Native 13-50 3-5 – 0 kolea lau nui MYLE2 Myrsine lessertiana Native 13-30 1-2 – 0 olapalapa CHTR2 Cheirodendron trigynum Native 13-40 1-2 – 0 olomea PESA3 Perrottetia sandwicensis Native 13-16 0-1 – 0 Kilauea pritchardia PRBE Pritchardia beccariana Native 13-50 0.5-1 – 0 koa ACKO Acacia koa Native 13-40 0-1 – 0 ha'a ANPL2 Antidesma platyphyllum Native 13-16 0-1 – 0 'ahakea BOTI Bobea timonioides Native 13-18 0-1 – 0 'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 80-90 0-1 – 0 Tree Fernhapu'u CIGL Cibotium glaucum Native 13-20 1-5 – 0 hapu'u li CIME8 Cibotium menziesii Native 13-20 0-1 – 0 Table 30. Community 1.1 forest understory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height (ft) Canopy cover (%) Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)ridgetop bloodgrass ISDI Isachne distichophylla Native 1–2 0–0.5 Oahu sedge CAWA Carex wahuensis Native 1–2 0–0.5 Hawai'i birdcatching sedge UNUN Uncinia uncinata Native 1–2 0–0.5 Hawai'i sedge CAAL12 Carex alligata Native 1–2 0–0.5 manyspike flatsedge CYPO Cyperus polystachyos Native 0.5–1 0 Forb/Herbpua'akuhinia ASME4 Astelia menziesiana Native 1–2 1–5 pukamole LYMA3 Lythrum maritimum Native 1–2 0–1 peperomia PEPER Peperomia Native 0.5–1 0.5–1 'uki'uki DISA6 Dianella sandwicensis Native 0.5–1 0.5–1 streambed phyllostegia PHVE4 Phyllostegia vestita Native 1–2 0 'ohe JOAS Joinvillea ascendens Native 1–2 0 Fern/fern allyOld World forkedfern DILI Dicranopteris linearis Native 1–8 1–10 Hawai'i twinsorus fern DISA3 Diplazium sandwichianum Native 2–3 1–5 alpine woodfern DRWA Dryopteris wallichiana Native 1–2 1–5 palapalai MIST4 Microlepia strigosa Native 1–2 0–2 spleenwort ASPLE Asplenium Native 1–2 0–1 Hawai'i woodfern DRHA Dryopteris hawaiiensis Native 1–2 0–1 Hawai'i air fern PNSA Pneumatopteris sandwicensis Native 1–2 0–1 sadleria SADLE Sadleria Native 1–4 0–1 wahini noho mauna ADTA Adenophorus tamariscinus Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 kolokolo GRTE Grammitis tenella Native 0.2–0.5 0–0.5 weeping fern LETH6 Lepisorus thunbergianus Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 Boston swordfern NEEX Nephrolepis exaltata Native 1–2 0–0.5 Old World adderstongue OPPEP Ophioglossum pendulum ssp. pendulum Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 creeping necklace fern LIRE2 Lindsaea repens Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 staghorn clubmoss LYCE2 Lycopodiella cernua Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 flatfork fern PSCO3 Psilotum complanatum Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 whisk fern PSNU Psilotum nudum Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 royal tonguefern ELCR2 Elaphoglossum crassifolium Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 ekaha ELHI3 Elaphoglossum hirtum Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 palaihinahina HYLA2 Hymenophyllum lanceolatum Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 scrambling fern DIPI3 Diplopterygium pinnatum Native 1–3 0 ohiaku HYRE Hymenophyllum recurvum Native 0.1–0.2 0 clubmoss HUPER Huperzia Native 0.5–1 0 Shrub/Subshrubcyrtandra CYRTA Cyrtandra Native 2–3 1–5 'ilihia CYPL5 Cyrtandra platyphylla Native 2–4 1–5 kanawao BRAR6 Broussaisia arguta Native 2–6 1–5 'oha kepau CLHA4 Clermontia hawaiiensis Native 2–8 0–1 pele clermontia CLPE2 Clermontia peleana Native 2–8 0–1 smallflower clermontia CLPA8 Clermontia parviflora Native 2–8 0–1 Hamakua clermontia CLPY2 Clermontia pyrularia Native 2–8 0–1 ohelo kau la'au VACA8 Vaccinium calycinum Native 2–4 0–1 Mauna Loa clermontia CLMO5 Clermontia montis-loa Native 2–8 0–1 anini EUSA6 Eurya sandwicensis Native 2–3 0 pukiawe STTA Styphelia tameiameiae Native 2–4 0 largeflower false lobelia TRGR8 Trematolobelia grandifolia Native 2–6 0 small treefern CYPA7 Cyathea parvula Native 2–5 0 Waimea pipturus PIAL2 Pipturus albidus Native 2–8 0 Treewild coffee PSYCH Psychotria Native 2–13 1–5 Hawai'i holly ILAN Ilex anomala Native 2–13 1–5 olapalapa CHTR2 Cheirodendron trigynum Native 2–13 1–5 ha'a ANPL2 Antidesma platyphyllum Native 2–13 1–2 variable starviolet HETE21 Hedyotis terminalis Native 2–13 0–1 volcanic melicope MEVO Melicope volcanica Native 2–13 0–1 olomea PESA3 Perrottetia sandwicensis Native 2–13 0–1 kolea lau nui MYLE2 Myrsine lessertiana Native 2–13 0–1 koa ACKO Acacia koa Native 2–13 0–0.5 'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 2–13 0 'ahakea BOTI Bobea timonioides Native 2–13 0 Kilauea pritchardia PRBE Pritchardia beccariana Native 2–13 0 Remy's gardenia GARE Gardenia remyi Native 2–13 0 'aku 'aku CYTR6 Cyanea tritomantha Native 2–13 0 naio MYSA Myoporum sandwicense Native 5–13 0 Tree Fernhapu'u CIGL Cibotium glaucum Native 2–13 20–30 hapu'u li CIME8 Cibotium menziesii Native 2–13 1–5 Chamisso's manfern CICH Cibotium chamissoi Introduced 2–13 0 Vine/Liana'ie'ie FRAR Freycinetia arborea Native 1–40 1–20 bog stenogyne STCA9 Stenogyne calaminthoides Native 0.2–0.5 1–3 mohihi STSC4 Stenogyne scrophularioides Native 0.2–0.5 0–1 Hawai'i greenbrier SMME Smilax melastomifolia Native 1–8 0–1 white bur cucumber SIAL7 Sicyos albus Native 1–4 0–1 Maile ALST11 Alyxia stellata Native 0.5–8 0–1 forest starviolet HECE Hedyotis centranthoides Native 1–4 0–0.5 Hawai'i phyllostegia PHFL6 Phyllostegia floribunda Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 Table 31. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 2550–3000 digitgrass DIER Digitaria eriantha 2550–3000 – limpograss HEAL5 Hemarthria altissima 2550–3000 – para grass URMU Urochloa mutica 2550–3000 – torpedo grass PARE3 Panicum repens 0–60 – Vasey's grass PAUR2 Paspalum urvillei 0–30 – glenwoodgrass SAIN Sacciolepis indica 0–30 – Colombian bluestem SCCO10 Schizachyrium condensatum 0–30 – marsh bristlegrass SEPA10 Setaria parviflora 0–30 – smut grass SPIN4 Sporobolus indicus 0–30 – shortleaf spikesedge KYBR Kyllinga brevifolia 0–30 – hilograss PACO14 Paspalum conjugatum 0–30 – dallisgrass PADI3 Paspalum dilatatum 0–30 – violet crabgrass DIVI2 Digitaria violascens 0–30 – broomsedge bluestem ANVI2 Andropogon virginicus 0–30 – common carpetgrass AXFI Axonopus fissifolius 0–30 – Oahu flatsedge CYHY2 Cyperus hypochlorus 0–30 – Forb2 Naturalized Forbs 150–300 climbing dayflower CODI5 Commelina diffusa 30–90 – greenleaf ticktrefoil DEIN2 Desmodium intortum 0–60 – zarzabacoa comun DEIN3 Desmodium incanum 0–60 – Hawai'i ticktrefoil DESA81 Desmodium sandwicense 0–60 – threeflower ticktrefoil DETR4 Desmodium triflorum 0–30 – shameplant MIPU8 Mimosa pudica 0–30 – scaly swordfern NEHI Nephrolepis hirsutula 0–30 – light-blue snakeweed STJA Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 0–30 – Colombian waxweed CUCA4 Cuphea carthagenensis 0–30 – tropical whiteweed AGCO Ageratum conyzoides 0–30 – bamboo orchid ARGR6 Arundina graminifolia 0–30 – sensitive partridge pea CHNI2 Chamaecrista nictitans 0–30 – Shrub/Vine3 Naturalized Shrubs 30–150 soapbush CLHI3 Clidemia hirta 0–30 – strawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum 0–30 – guava PSGU Psidium guajava 0–30 – Table 32. Community 2.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 33. Community 2.2 forest overstory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height ft Canopy cover (%) Diameter in Basal area (square ft/acre) Treepeacocksplume FAMO Falcataria moluccana Introduced 40-60 0-1 – 0 peacocksplume FAMO Falcataria moluccana Introduced 13-40 0-1 – 0 Table 34. Community 2.2 forest understory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height (ft) Canopy cover (%) Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)broomsedge bluestem ANVI2 Andropogon virginicus Introduced 2–3 25–35 hilograss PACO14 Paspalum conjugatum Introduced 0.5–1 15–25 Colombian bluestem SCCO10 Schizachyrium condensatum Introduced 2–3 5–15 common carpetgrass AXFI Axonopus fissifolius Introduced 0.5–1 5–15 digitgrass DIER Digitaria eriantha Introduced 1–2 5–15 para grass URMU Urochloa mutica Introduced 1–2 5–15 torpedo grass PARE3 Panicum repens Introduced 1–2 1–5 smut grass SPIN4 Sporobolus indicus Introduced 0.5–1 3–5 shortleaf spikesedge KYBR Kyllinga brevifolia Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 glenwoodgrass SAIN Sacciolepis indica Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 marsh bristlegrass SEPA10 Setaria parviflora Introduced 1–2 0–1 Vasey's grass PAUR2 Paspalum urvillei Introduced 1–2 0–1 dallisgrass PADI3 Paspalum dilatatum Introduced 1–2 0–1 Job's tears COLA Coix lacryma-jobi Introduced 1–2 0–1 violet crabgrass DIVI2 Digitaria violascens Introduced 1–2 0–1 Forb/HerbColombian waxweed CUCA4 Cuphea carthagenensis Introduced 0.5–1 1–5 light-blue snakeweed STJA Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Introduced 2–3 0–1 shameplant MIPU8 Mimosa pudica Introduced 0.2–0.5 0–1 tropical whiteweed AGCO Ageratum conyzoides Introduced 1–2 0–1 bamboo orchid ARGR6 Arundina graminifolia Introduced 1–2 0–1 sensitive partridge pea CHNI2 Chamaecrista nictitans Introduced 0.2–0.5 0–1 climbing dayflower CODI5 Commelina diffusa Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 threeflower ticktrefoil DETR4 Desmodium triflorum Introduced 0.2–0.5 0 zarzabacoa comun DEIN3 Desmodium incanum Introduced 0.5–1 0 Hawai'i ticktrefoil DESA81 Desmodium sandwicense Introduced 0.5–1 0 Fern/fern allyscaly swordfern NEHI Nephrolepis hirsutula Introduced 1–2 0–1 Shrub/Subshrubcure for all PLCA10 Pluchea carolinensis Introduced 2–4 0–10 soapbush CLHI3 Clidemia hirta Introduced 2–3 0–1 Treeguava PSGU Psidium guajava Introduced 2–13 0–1 strawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum Introduced 2–13 0–1 Vine/Lianagreenleaf ticktrefoil DEIN2 Desmodium intortum Introduced 0.5–1 0 Table 35. Community 2.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 36. Community 2.3 forest overstory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height ft Canopy cover (%) Diameter in Basal area (square ft/acre) Treepeacocksplume FAMO Falcataria moluccana Introduced 40-80 0-5 – 0 peacocksplume FAMO Falcataria moluccana Introduced 13-40 0-5 – 0 strawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum Introduced 13-20 0-1 – 0 Table 37. Community 2.3 forest understory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height (ft) Canopy cover (%) Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)broomsedge bluestem ANVI2 Andropogon virginicus Introduced 2–3 15–25 hilograss PACO14 Paspalum conjugatum Introduced 0.5–1 5–15 common carpetgrass AXFI Axonopus fissifolius Introduced 0.5–1 5–15 para grass URMU Urochloa mutica Introduced 1–2 5–10 smut grass SPIN4 Sporobolus indicus Introduced 1–2 3–5 Colombian bluestem SCCO10 Schizachyrium condensatum Introduced 2–3 3–5 Job's tears COLA Coix lacryma-jobi Introduced 1–2 0–1 violet crabgrass DIVI2 Digitaria violascens Introduced 1–2 0–1 shortleaf spikesedge KYBR Kyllinga brevifolia Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 Vasey's grass PAUR2 Paspalum urvillei Introduced 1–2 0–1 glenwoodgrass SAIN Sacciolepis indica Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 marsh bristlegrass SEPA10 Setaria parviflora Introduced 1–2 0–1 torpedo grass PARE3 Panicum repens Introduced 1–2 0–1 dallisgrass PADI3 Paspalum dilatatum Introduced 1–2 0–1 Forb/Herbclimbing dayflower CODI5 Commelina diffusa Introduced 0.5–1 1–2 bamboo orchid ARGR6 Arundina graminifolia Introduced 1–2 0–1 Philippine ground orchid SPPL Spathoglottis plicata Introduced 1–2 0–1 sensitive partridge pea CHNI2 Chamaecrista nictitans Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 shameplant MIPU8 Mimosa pudica Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 tropical whiteweed AGCO Ageratum conyzoides Introduced 1–2 0–1 Colombian waxweed CUCA4 Cuphea carthagenensis Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 light-blue snakeweed STJA Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Introduced 2–3 0–1 Fern/fern allyscaly swordfern NEHI Nephrolepis hirsutula Introduced 1–2 5–15 Old World forkedfern DILI Dicranopteris linearis Native 1–6 5–10 staghorn clubmoss LYCE2 Lycopodiella cernua Native 0.5–1 0–0.5 Shrub/SubshrubAsian melastome MECA9 Melastoma candidum Introduced 2–10 1–15 cure for all PLCA10 Pluchea carolinensis Introduced 2–6 1–10 soapbush CLHI3 Clidemia hirta Introduced 2–5 1–5 Treestrawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum Introduced 2–13 1–10 guava PSGU Psidium guajava Introduced 2–5 1–3 peacocksplume FAMO Falcataria moluccana Native 2–13 0–2 Vine/Lianayellow Himalayan raspberry RUEL3 Rubus ellipticus Introduced 2–4 1–5 West Indian raspberry RURO Rubus rosifolius Introduced 2–4 0–1 Table 38. Community 3.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 39. Community 3.1 forest overstory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height ft Canopy cover (%) Diameter in Basal area (square ft/acre) Treeshamel ash FRUH Fraxinus uhdei Introduced 60-90 70-80 – 0 strawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum Introduced 13-20 25-35 – 0 Asian melastome MECA9 Melastoma candidum Introduced 13-16 1-5 – 0 shamel ash FRUH Fraxinus uhdei Introduced 13-50 1-5 – 0 'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 60-80 0 – 0 Table 40. Community 3.1 forest understory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height (ft) Canopy cover (%) Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)palmgrass SEPA6 Setaria palmifolia Introduced 1–2 3–5 hilograss PACO14 Paspalum conjugatum Introduced 0.5–1 3–5 basketgrass OPHI Oplismenus hirtellus Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 Forb/HerbKahila garland-lily HEGA Hedychium gardnerianum Introduced 2–5 1–5 Fern/fern allyscaly swordfern NEHI Nephrolepis hirsutula Introduced 1–2 3–5 Shrub/SubshrubAsian melastome MECA9 Melastoma candidum Introduced 2–13 5–15 soapbush CLHI3 Clidemia hirta Introduced 2–6 1–10 Treestrawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum Introduced 2–13 20–30 shamel ash FRUH Fraxinus uhdei Introduced 2–13 0–1 wild coffee PSYCH Psychotria Native 2–13 0 Tree Fernhapu'u CIGL Cibotium glaucum Native 5–8 0 Vine/LianaWest Indian raspberry RURO Rubus rosifolius Introduced 2–4 3–5 yellow Himalayan raspberry RUEL3 Rubus ellipticus Introduced 2–5 1–5 'ie'ie FRAR Freycinetia arborea Native 1–20 0 Table 41. Community 4.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 42. Community 4.1 forest overstory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height ft Canopy cover (%) Diameter in Basal area (square ft/acre) Tree'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 40-70 30-60 – 0 strawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum Introduced 13-20 15-25 – 0 Asian melastome MECA9 Melastoma candidum Introduced 13-16 3-5 – 0 wild coffee PSYCH Psychotria Native 13-25 0-2 – 0 Table 43. Community 4.1 forest understory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height (ft) Canopy cover (%) Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)palmgrass SEPA6 Setaria palmifolia Introduced 1–2 1–10 hilograss PACO14 Paspalum conjugatum Introduced 0.5–1 1–5 basketgrass OPHI Oplismenus hirtellus Introduced 1–2 0–1 Forb/HerbKahila garland-lily HEGA Hedychium gardnerianum Introduced 2–5 1–80 Philippine ground orchid SPPL Spathoglottis plicata Introduced 1–2 0–1 Fern/fern allyscaly swordfern NEHI Nephrolepis hirsutula Introduced 1–2 10–25 spleenwort ASPLE Asplenium Native 1–2 0 Shrub/Subshrubsoapbush CLHI3 Clidemia hirta Introduced 2–6 10–15 Asian melastome MECA9 Melastoma candidum Introduced 2–13 10–15 Treestrawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum Introduced 2–13 10–20 guava PSGU Psidium guajava Introduced 4–8 0–2 wild coffee PSYCH Psychotria Native 8–13 0–1 Tree Fernhapu'u CIGL Cibotium glaucum Native 5–10 0–2 Vine/Lianayellow Himalayan raspberry RUEL3 Rubus ellipticus Introduced 2–5 1–5 West Indian raspberry RURO Rubus rosifolius Introduced 2–3 0–1 'ie'ie FRAR Freycinetia arborea Native 0–20 0–1 Table 44. Community 5.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 45. Community 5.1 forest overstory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height ft Canopy cover (%) Diameter in Basal area (square ft/acre) Treestrawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum Introduced 13-20 40-50 – 0 peacocksplume FAMO Falcataria moluccana Introduced 13-40 0-30 – 0 peacocksplume FAMO Falcataria moluccana Introduced 13-40 0-30 – 0 peacocksplume FAMO Falcataria moluccana Introduced 40-80 0-30 – 0 'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 40-80 0-30 – 0 'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 20-40 0-1 – 0 punktree MEQU Melaleuca quinquenervia Introduced 40-60 0-1 – 0 punktree MEQU Melaleuca quinquenervia Introduced 13-40 0-1 – 0 Malabar plum SYJA Syzygium jambos Introduced 13-40 0-1 – 0 wild coffee PSYCH Psychotria Native 13-20 0 – 0 Table 46. Community 5.1 forest understory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height (ft) Canopy cover (%) Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)palmgrass SEPA6 Setaria palmifolia Introduced 1–2 1–5 basketgrass OPHI Oplismenus hirtellus Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 Forb/Herbpinklady DIRO2 Dissotis rotundifolia Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 Philippine ground orchid SPPL Spathoglottis plicata Introduced 1–2 0–0.5 Fern/fern allyscaly swordfern NEHI Nephrolepis hirsutula Introduced 1–2 3–5 Old World forkedfern DILI Dicranopteris linearis Native 1–2 0 royal tonguefern ELCR2 Elaphoglossum crassifolium Native 0.5–1 0 staghorn clubmoss LYCE2 Lycopodiella cernua Native 0.5–1 0 whisk fern PSNU Psilotum nudum Native 0.2–0.5 0 Shrub/SubshrubAsian melastome MECA9 Melastoma candidum Introduced 2–13 1–5 soapbush CLHI3 Clidemia hirta Introduced 2–5 1–5 Treestrawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum Introduced 2–13 20–50 Malabar plum SYJA Syzygium jambos Introduced 2–13 0–5 peacocksplume FAMO Falcataria moluccana Introduced 2–13 0 punktree MEQU Melaleuca quinquenervia Introduced 2–13 0 wild coffee PSYCH Psychotria Native 5–13 0 Tree Fernhapu'u CIGL Cibotium glaucum Native 3–8 0–1 Vine/Lianayellow Himalayan raspberry RUEL3 Rubus ellipticus Introduced 2–4 0–1 West Indian raspberry RURO Rubus rosifolius Introduced 1–3 0–1 'ie'ie FRAR Freycinetia arborea Native 1–10 0 Table 47. Community 6.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 48. Community 6.1 forest overstory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height ft Canopy cover (%) Diameter in Basal area (square ft/acre) Treeshamel ash FRUH Fraxinus uhdei Introduced 60-80 80-90 – 0 shamel ash FRUH Fraxinus uhdei Introduced 13-40 0-1 – 0 'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 13-40 0-1 – 0 'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 40-70 0 – 0 Table 49. Community 6.1 forest understory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height (ft) Canopy cover (%) Forb/Herbpeperomia PEPER Peperomia Native 0.5–1 0–1 pua'akuhinia ASME4 Astelia menziesiana Native 0.5–1 0–1 herbaceous glorytree TIHE2 Tibouchina herbacea Introduced 0.5–1 0–1 Philippine ground orchid SPPL Spathoglottis plicata Introduced 1–2 0 Fern/fern allysadleria SADLE Sadleria Native 2–4 0–1 Old World forkedfern DILI Dicranopteris linearis Native 1–3 0–1 vandenboschia VANDE Vandenboschia Native 0.5–1 0–1 kolokolo GRTE Grammitis tenella Native 0.2–0.5 0–1 narrow swordfern NECO3 Nephrolepis cordifolia Native 1–2 0–1 wahini noho mauna ADTA Adenophorus tamariscinus Native 0.5–1 0–1 ekaha ELHI3 Elaphoglossum hirtum Native 0.5–1 0–1 ohiaku HYRE Hymenophyllum recurvum Native 0.2–0.5 0–1 weeping fern LETH6 Lepisorus thunbergianus Native 0.5–1 0–1 Old World adderstongue OPPEP Ophioglossum pendulum ssp. pendulum Native 0.5–1 0 royal tonguefern ELCR2 Elaphoglossum crassifolium Native 0.5–1 0 scrambling fern DIPI3 Diplopterygium pinnatum Native 1–3 0 spleenwort ASPLE Asplenium Native 1–2 0 Shrub/Subshrubohelo kau la'au VACA8 Vaccinium calycinum Native 2–3 0–1 soapbush CLHI3 Clidemia hirta Introduced 2–3 0–1 kanawao BRAR6 Broussaisia arguta Native 2–4 0–1 clermontia CLERM Clermontia Native 2–4 0 cyrtandra CYRTA Cyrtandra Native 2–3 0 Treestrawberry guava PSCA Psidium cattleianum Introduced 2–10 1–5 mirrorplant COPRO Coprosma Native 2–13 0–1 Hawai'i holly ILAN Ilex anomala Native 2–13 0–1 shamel ash FRUH Fraxinus uhdei Introduced 2–13 0–1 olapalapa CHTR2 Cheirodendron trigynum Native 2–13 0–1 wild coffee PSYCH Psychotria Native 2–13 0 'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 2–13 0 kolea lau nui MYLE2 Myrsine lessertiana Native 2–4 0 olomea PESA3 Perrottetia sandwicensis Native 2–8 0 Tree Fernhapu'u CIGL Cibotium glaucum Native 2–10 40–70 hapu'u li CIME8 Cibotium menziesii Native 2–10 0–1 Vine/Liana'ie'ie FRAR Freycinetia arborea Native 1–10 0 bog stenogyne STCA9 Stenogyne calaminthoides Native 0.5–1 0 Table 50. Community 7.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 51. Community 7.1 forest overstory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height ft Canopy cover (%) Diameter in Basal area (square ft/acre) Tree'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 13-40 5-35 – 0 koa ACKO Acacia koa Native 13-40 0-2 – 0 olapalapa CHTR2 Cheirodendron trigynum Native 13-25 0-1 – 0 wild coffee PSYCH Psychotria Native 13-25 0-1 – 0 kolea lau nui MYLE2 Myrsine lessertiana Native 13-25 0-1 – 0 Table 52. Community 7.1 forest understory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height (ft) Canopy cover (%) Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)Oahu sedge CAWA Carex wahuensis Native 1–2 0–1 Hawai'i sedge CAAL12 Carex alligata Native 1–2 0–1 Fern/fern allyOld World forkedfern DILI Dicranopteris linearis Native 2–10 25–35 Hawai'i umbrella fern STOW Sticherus owhyensis Native 2–10 5–10 scrambling fern DIPI3 Diplopterygium pinnatum Native 2–10 1–2 sadleria SADLE Sadleria Native 2–4 0–1 staghorn clubmoss LYCE2 Lycopodiella cernua Native 0.2–0.5 0–0.5 whisk fern PSNU Psilotum nudum Native 0.2–0.5 0–0.5 Shrub/Subshrubohelo kau la'au VACA8 Vaccinium calycinum Native 2–5 1–5 huahekili uka SCKI Scaevola kilaueae Native 2–5 0–1 pukiawe STTA Styphelia tameiameiae Native 2–3 0.5–1 Waimea pipturus PIAL2 Pipturus albidus Native 2–10 1 clermontia CLERM Clermontia Native 2–6 0–1 kanawao BRAR6 Broussaisia arguta Native 2–4 0 Treekolea lau nui MYLE2 Myrsine lessertiana Native 2–13 1–2 mirrorplant COPRO Coprosma Native 2–13 1–2 olomea PESA3 Perrottetia sandwicensis Native 2–13 1–2 kokea lau li'i MYSA2 Myrsine sandwicensis Native 2–13 1–2 wild coffee PSYCH Psychotria Native 2–13 0–1 'ohi'a lehua MEPO5 Metrosideros polymorpha Native 2–13 0–1 koa ACKO Acacia koa Native 2–13 0–1 olapalapa CHTR2 Cheirodendron trigynum Native 2–13 0–1 Hawai'i holly ILAN Ilex anomala Native 2–13 0 Tree Fernhapu'u CIGL Cibotium glaucum Native 2–13 10–25 Vine/Lianaforest starviolet HECE Hedyotis centranthoides Native 2–4 0–1 'ie'ie FRAR Freycinetia arborea Native 1–20 0 Interpretations
Animal community
This ecological site provides habitat to the following native birds: elepaio (Chasiempis sandwichensis), amakihi (Hemignathus virens), apapane (Himatione sanguinea), iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea), omao (Myadestes obscurus), akepa (Loxops coccineus), and akiapolaau (Hemignathus wilsoni). Species and populations may be limited by avian malaria carried by introduced mosquitoes. This ecological site also is home to the Hawaiian hoary bat or opeapea (Lasiurus cenarius semotus). These species may be encountered within all community phases but are most prevalent in open canopy native forest and forest adjacent to clearings. Community phases that provide open grassland or savannah-like settings provide habitat for the native Hawaiian hawk, or io (Buteo solitarius) and Hawaiian owl or pueo (Asio flammeus spp. sandwichensis).
This ecological site provides habitat to a variety of introduced birds. Species such as wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), Erckel’s francolin (Pternistis erckelii), black francolin (Francolinus francolinus), and kalij pheasant (Lophura leucomelanos) are considered to be game birds.
Feral pigs are abundant. They provide hunting opportunities but are very destructive to native vegetation. Public sport hunting typically does not have a major impact on their populations, especially in remote areas.
Introduced wildlife species are able to utilize all community phases within the ecological site.
Grazing Interpretations
The following table lists suggested initial stocking rates for cattle under the Forage Value Rating system for only community phase 2.1. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Sometimes the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community described in this ecological site description. Because of this, a field visit is recommended to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. Under more intensive grazing management, improved harvest efficiencies may result in an increased stocking rate.
Forage Value Rating (note 1)
Very High (note 2) 0.40-0.59 acre/AUM (note 3) 2.56-1.70 AUM/acre
High 0.59-0.78 acre/AUM 1.70-1.28 AUM/acre
Moderate 0.78-1.56 acre/AUM 1.28-0.64 AUM/acre
Low 1.56-+ acre/AUM 0.64-+ AUM/acre
(note 1) The Forage Value Rating System is not an ecological evaluation of community phase 2.1. It is a utilitarian rating of the existing forage value for that specific plant community.
(note 2) Conservationists must use considerable judgment, because some pastures in the Very High forage class could be producing less than normal volumes of forage, and adjustments would need to be made in the initial stocking rate.
(note 3) Stocking rates vary in accordance with such factors as kind and class of livestock or wildlife, season of use, and fluctuations in climate. Actual use records and on-site inventories for individual sites, together with a determination of the degree to which the sites have been grazed, offer the most reliable basis for developing initial stocking rates.
This plant community is suitable for grazing by all kinds and classes of livestock, at any season, particularly cattle. This site is suited for grazing by both cow-calf operations and stocker operations. However, sheep can be grazed on this site as well. This site is poorly suited to continuous year-long use if the plant community is to be maintained. Herbaceous forage can be deficient in protein during the drier months.Hydrological functions
Runoff occurs where soils are very shallow to shallow over pahoehoe lava. This runoff can cause localized ponding in low-lying kipukas and in low spots on the pahoehoe.
The water permeability of pahoehoe is highly variable due to variable cracking and uplift of the lava.
This ecological site co-occurs within some soil map units with F162XY505 Isothermic Aquic Forest, in which low, ponded sites are common.
Recreational uses
Feral pigs are abundant. They provide hunting opportunities but are very destructive to native vegetation. Public sport hunting typically does not have a major impact on their populations, especially in remote areas.
Hiking and viewing of natural rain forest vegetation can be done within parks and along established trails.Wood products
Some areas within this ecological site were cleared and planted with introduced timber tree species. So far, little harvesting has occurred.
Other products
None.
Other information
Definitions
These definitions have been greatly simplified for brevity and do not cover every aspect of each topic.
Aa lava: A type of basaltic lava having a rough, jagged, clinkery surface and a vesicular interior.
Alluvial: Materials or processes associated with transportation and/or deposition by running water.
Aquic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is free of dissolved oxygen because it is saturated by water. This regime typically exists in bogs or swamps.
Aridic soil moisture regime: A regime in which defined parts of the soil are, in normal years, dry for more than half of the growing season and moist for less than 90 consecutive days during the growing season. In Hawaii it is associated with hot, dry areas with plants such as kiawe, wiliwili, and buffelgrass. The terms aridic and torric are basically the same.
Ash field: a land area covered by a thick or distinctive deposit of volcanic ash that can be traced to a specific source and has well defined boundaries. The term “ash flow” is erroneously used in the Physiographic section of this ESD due to a flaw in the national database.
Ashy: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of less than 30 percent; a soil that holds relatively less water than “medial” and “hydrous” soils.
Available water capacity: The amount of soil water available to plants to the depth of the first root-restricting layer.
Basal area or basal cover: The cross sectional area of the stem or stems of a plant or of all plants in a stand.
Blue rock: The dense, hard, massive lava that forms the inner core of an aa lava flow.
Bulk density: the weight of dry soil per unit of volume. Lower bulk density indicates a greater amount of pore space that can hold water and air in a soil.
CaCO3 equivalent: The amount of free lime in a soil. Free lime exists as solid material and typically occurs in regions with a dry climate.
Canopy cover: The percentage of ground covered by the vertical projection downward of the outermost perimeter of the spread of plant foliage. Small openings within the canopy are included.
Community pathway: A description of the causes of shifts between community phases. A community pathway is reversible and is attributable to succession, natural disturbances, short-term climatic variation, and facilitating practices, such as grazing management.
Community phase: A unique assemblage of plants and associated dynamic soil properties within a state.
Dominant species: Plant species or species groups that exert considerable influence upon a community due to size, abundance, or cover.
Drainage class: The frequency and duration of a water table in a soil. There are seven drainage classes, ranging from “excessively drained” (soils with very rare or very deep water tables) to “well drained” (soils that provide ample water for plant growth but are not so wet as to inhibit root growth) to “very poorly drained” (soils with a water table at or near the surface during much of the growing season that inhibits growth of most plants).
Electrical conductivity (EC): A measure of the salinity of a soil. The standard unit is deciSiemens per meter (dS/m), which is numerically equivalent to millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). An EC greater than about 4 dS/m indicates a salinity level that is unfavorable to growth of most plants.
Friability: A soil consistency term pertaining to the ease of crumbling of soils.
Hydrous: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 100 percent or more; a soil that holds more water than “medial” or “ashy” soils.
Ion exchange capacity: The ability of soil materials such as clay or organic matter to retain ions (which may be plant nutrients) and to release those ions for uptake by roots.
Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) or higher and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Isomesic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 47 degrees F (8 degrees C) or higher but lower than 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Isothermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) or higher but lower than 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Kipuka: An area of land surrounded by younger (more recent) lava. Soils and plant communities within a kipuka are older than, and often quite different from, those on the surrounding surfaces.
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): A geographic area defined by NRCS that is characterized by a particular pattern of soils, climate, water resources, and land uses. The island of Hawaii contains nine MLRAs, some of which also occur on other islands in the state.
Makai: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the sea.”
Mauka: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the mountain” or “inland.”
Medial: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent; a soil that holds an amount of water intermediate to “hydrous” or “ashy” soils.
Naturalized plant community: A community dominated by adapted, introduced species. It is a relatively stable community resulting from secondary succession after disturbance. Most grasslands in Hawaii are in this category.
Pahoehoe lava: A type of basaltic lava with a smooth, billowy, or rope-like surface and vesicular interior.
Parent material: Unconsolidated and chemically weathered material from which a soil is developed.
Perudic soil moisture regime: A very wet regime found where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration in all months of normal years. On the island of Hawaii, this regime is found on top of Kohala and on parts of the windward side of Mauna Kea.
pH: The numerical expression of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a soil sample. A pH of 7 is neutral; a pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is basic.
Phosphorus adsorption: The ability of soil materials to tightly retain phosphorous ions, which are a plant nutrient. Some volcanic ash soils retain phosphorus so strongly that it is partly unavailable to plants.
Reference community phase: The phase exhibiting the characteristics of the reference state and containing the full complement of plant species that historically occupied the site. It is the community phase used to classify an ecological site.
Reference state: A state that describes the ecological potential and natural or historical range of variability of an ecological site.
Restoration pathway: A term describing the environmental conditions and practices that are required to recover a state that has undergone a transition.
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR): A measure of the amount of dissolved sodium relative to calcium and magnesium in the soil water. SAR values higher than 13 create soil conditions unfavorable to most plants.
Soil moisture regime: A term referring to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa (the crop wilting point) in the soil or in specific horizons during periods of the year.
Soil temperature regime: A defined class based on mean annual soil temperature and on differences between summer and winter temperatures at a specified depth.
Soil reaction: Numerical expression in pH units of the relative acidity or alkalinity or a soil.
State: One or more community phases and their soil properties that interact with the abiotic and biotic environment to produce persistent functional and structural attributes associated with a characteristic range of variability.
State-and-transition model: A method used to display information about relationships between vegetation, soil, animals, hydrology, disturbances, and management actions on an ecological site.
Torric soil moisture regime: See Aridic soil moisture regime.
Transition: A term describing the biotic or abiotic variables or events that contribute to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states.
Udic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years, and so provides ample moisture for plants. In Hawaii it is associated with forests in which hapuu (tree ferns) are usually moderately to highly abundant.
Ustic soil moisture regime: A regime in which moisture is limited but present at a time when conditions are suitable for plant growth. In Hawaii it usually is associated with dry forests and subalpine shrublands.Supporting information
Type locality
Location 1: Hawaii County, HI Latitude 19° 24′ 57″ Longitude 155° 14′ 35″ General legal description Lower section of HVNP. From Park entrance take immediate left, go 0.25 mi to stop sign, g0 left onto Crater Rim Drive, go 1.13 mile to Kilauea Iki Trail. Point is approximately 700 feet past sign, winding down the trail. Other references
Armstrong RW. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Athens JS. Ch. 12 Hawaiian Native Lowland Vegetation in Prehistory in Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands – Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change. Kirch PV and TL Hunt, eds. 1997. Yale U. Press, New Haven.
Burney DA, HF James, LP Burney, SL Olson, W Kikuchi, WL Wagner, M Burney, D McCloskey, D Kikuchi, FV Grady, R Gage II, and R Nishek. 2001. Fossil evidence for a diverse biota from Kauai and tis transformation since human arrival. Ecological Monographs 71:615-641.
Craighill ES and EG Handy. 1991. Native Planters in Old Hawaii – Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI
Cuddihy LW and CP Stone. 1990. Alteration of Native Hawaiian Vegetation: Effects of Humans, Their Activities and Introductions. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Study Unit.
Hazlett RW and DW Hyndman. 1996. Roadside Geology of Hawaii. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula MT.
Henke LA. 1929. A Survey of Livestock in Hawaii. Research Publication No. 5. University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Jacobi JD. 1989. Vegetation Maps of the Upland Plant Communities on the Islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai. Technical Report 68. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa and National Park Service.
Kirch PV. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians in the Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Science 36(1):1-14.
Kirch PV. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Kirch PV. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Little EL Jr. and RG Skolmen. 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and Introduced). US Department of Agriculture-US Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 679. (out of print). Available at www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/misc/ah679.pdf
Loh RK. 2004. Complete vegetation map of Hawaii Volcanoes National park below 8,000 ft elevation. US National Park Service.
Maly K and O Maly. 2004. He Moolelo Aina: A Cultural Study of the Puu O Umi Natural Area Reserve and Kohala-Hamakua Mountain Lands, Districts of Kohala and Hamakua, Island of Hawaii. Kumu Pono Associates, Hilo HI.
Mueller-Dombois D and FR Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
Palmer DD. 2003. Hawaii’s Ferns and Fern Allies. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Pratt HD. 1998. A Pocket Guide to Hawaii’s Trees and Shrubs. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.
Ripperton JC and EY Hosaka. 1942. Vegetation zones of Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 89:1-60.
Rock JF. The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands. 1st edition 1913, reprinted 1974, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, VT and Tokyo, Japan.
Shoji SD, M Nanzyo, and R Dahlgren. 1993. Volcanic Ash Soils: Genesis, Properties and Utilization. Elsevier, New York.
Sohmer SH and R Gustafson. 2000. Plants and Flowers of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Steadman DW. 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science 267:1123-1131.
USDA-NRCS-PIA T&E Species GIS files. Not publicly available.
USDI-USGS. 2006. A GAP Analysis of Hawaii. Final Report and Data.
Vitousek P. 2004. Nutrient Cycling and Limitation: Hawaii as a Model Ecosystem. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford.
Wagner WL, DR Herbst, and SH Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised Edition. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.
Whistler WA. 1995. Wayside Plants of the Islands: a Guide to the Lowland Flora of the Pacific Islands. Isle Botanica, Honolulu.Contributors
Dr. David Clausnitzer
Loretta Metz
Joseph MayApproval
Kendra Moseley, 9/12/2023
Acknowledgments
Assistance, advice, review, and/or insights: Mick Castillo Michael Constantinides, NRCS-PIA Susan Cordell, USFS Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch David Leonard, volunteer JB Friday, UH Forestry Extension Rick Gordon Basil Hansen, The Nature Conservancy Jennifer Higashino, USFWS and NRCS Flint Hughes, USFS Chris Jasper, NRCS Soil Survey Mel Johansen, The Nature Conservancy Kathy Kawakami, US Army Pohakuloa Training Ground Rhonda Loh, Volcanoes National Park Kamehameha Schools/Bishop Estate Miles Nakahara, Hawaii DOFAW Laura Nelson, The Nature Conservancy and NRCS Patrick Niemeyer, NRCS Soil Survey Billy Paris, rancher John Pipan Jon Price, USGS John Replogle, The Nature Conservancy Paul Scowcroft, USFS Earl Spence, grazing consultant Jim Thain Mike Tomich Quentin Tomich Tim Tunison, Volcanoes National Park Jill Wagner, consultant, Future Forests Rick Warschauer
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Contact for lead author Date 09/17/2026 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
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Presence of water flow patterns:
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Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
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Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
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Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
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Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
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Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
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Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
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Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
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Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
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Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
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Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
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Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
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Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
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Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
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Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
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Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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