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Ecological site VX158X01X401

Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland
Koa haole/guineagrass/glycine
(Leucaena leucocephala/Urochloa maxima/Neonotonia wightii)

Last updated: 4/17/2025
Accessed: 09/22/2026

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

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Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 158X–Semiarid and Subhumid Low Mountain Slopes

MLRA 158 – Semiarid and Subhumid Low Mountain Slopes
This MLRA occurs in the State of Hawaii on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai. It consists primarily of nearly level to moderately steep slopes that are dissected in places by gulches. It occurs on leeward, drier sides of the older volcanoes within the Hawaiian Islands. Elevation ranges from sea level to 1600 feet (0 to 490 meters). Geology is largely highly weathered volcanic ash overlying basic igneous rocks. Alluvium derived from basic igneous rocks occurs in some areas. Average annual precipitation typically ranges from 10 to 30 inches (255 to 760 millimeters), rising to over 60 inches (1525 millimeters) in some areas, and mostly occurs from November through March. Much of the rainfall occurs in kona storms during winter. Average annual temperatures range from 69 to 76 degrees F (21 to 24 degrees C), with very little seasonal variation. Soils are mostly Oxisols, Mollisols, and Aridisols with isohyperthermic soil temperature regime and ustic or aridic (torric) soil moisture regimes. Native vegetation is rare and consists of species characteristic of dry forests or savannas, such as lama, koaia, wiliwili, ohe makai, and ulei. Naturalized grasses, such as buffelgrass and guineagrass, and trees, such as koa haole and kiawe, are common.

Classification relationships

This ecological site occurs within Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 158 - Arid and Semiarid Low Mountain Slopes.

Ecological site concept

This ecological site is largely naturalized grassland at low elevations on the northwestern slope of Kohala on Hawaii, the northwestern slope of Haleakala and northern slope of West Maui on Maui, the central plateau of Lanai, multiple parts of Molokai, the central valley of Oahu, and the eastern lowlands of Kauai. Much of the area is or has been in intensive agriculture or has been developed. Principal landowners are large private land companies, ranches, and the State of Hawaii. It can be accessed on Hawaii along Route 270 from west of Hawi to Kapaau and along Route 250 from about 10 miles south of Hawi to Hawi. It is accessible on Maui along Baldwin Avenue between the coast and Makawao and along Route 340 around the northern coast of West Maui. On Lanai, examples can be seen south of Lanai City along Route 440 and northwest of Lanai City along the road to Garden of the Gods. On Molokai, it is accessed along Route 460 in the Maunaloa highlands and in the Hoolehua area. On Oahu, it is accessed mostly in the central valley between Waipio and Waialua along H2 and Routes 803 and 99. On Kauai, it is accessed between Koloa and the coast and along Route 51/56 between Lihue Airport and Anahola.

The central concept of the Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland is of well drained, moderately deep to very deep soils, most of which have mollic (high organic matter and base saturation), oxic (highly weathered, low fertility), or ultic (weathered, low base saturation) properties, and that formed in residuum, volcanic ash, or alluvium. Included are a shallow soil with andic (formed in young volcanic ash) properties and a deep soil with vertic (clayey, forming deep cracks when dry) properties. Annual air temperatures and rainfall are associated with very warm (isohyperthermic) to warm (isothermic), seasonally dry (ustic or ustic/aridic intergrade) soil conditions. Elevations range from sea level (0 meters) to about 2500 feet (770 meters). Because very little of the original native vegetation remains, the reference state of this ecological site consists of the dominant naturalized grassland vegetation. The dominant grass species is guineagrass (Urochloa maxima). Common naturalized trees are koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala) and christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius).

Associated sites

VX160X01X007	Isothermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland (Kikuyugrass) The Isothermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland occurs only on Maui. It adjoins the high elevation boundary of the Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland on that island. The Isothermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland has a cooler soil temperature regime (isothermic), same soil moisture regime (ustic), lesser average annual rainfall (20 to 50 versus 30 to 60 inches), higher elevation range (700 to 5100 versus 0 to 2100 feet), similar but possibly more diverse native dry forest, and different dominant forage grass species (guineagrass and kikuyugrass versus guineagrass) compared to the Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland. Soils are nearly all Andisols rather than Mollisols, Oxisols, and Ultisols that occur in the Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland.
VX158X01X005	Naturalized Grassland 50 to 90 inch PZ Ohia lehua/kikuyugrass (Metrosideros polymorpha/Pennisetum clandestinum) The Naturalized Grassland, 50 to 90 Inch Precipitation Zone occurs on the islands of Kauai, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, and Maui. It has cooler soils (isothermic and cooler part of isohyperthermic), moister soils (udic and moist ustic), greater average annual rainfall (50 to 90 versus 30 to 60 inches), and has kikuyugrass rather than guineagrass as the dominant forage grass species. Soils in the Naturalized Grassland, 50 to 90 Inch Precipitation Zone are primarily Andisols, Andic Inceptisols, and Ultisols rather than the Mollisols, Oxisols, and Ultisols of the Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland.
VX157X01X003	Rocky Volcanic Ash Savanna Kiawe/buffelgrass (Prosopis pallida/Pennisetum ciliare) The Rocky Volcanic Ash Savanna is on the islands of Hawaii and Maui. It has the same soil temperature regime (isohyperthermic), same soil moisture regime (mostly torric), lower average annual rainfall (7 to 20 versus 15 to 30 inches), higher elevation range (0 to about 2200 feet), supports sparse native tree species rather than primarily shrubs and grasses, and has soil conditions that support the dominance of kiawe as the main introduced tree species compared to the Torric Naturalized Grassland. The ecological sites share buffelgrass as a potential dominant forage grass species. The soils in the Rocky Volcanic Ash Savanna are rockier and have finer subsoils than those in the Torric Naturalized Grassland.
VX158X01X002	Isohyperthermic Torric Naturalized Grassland Kiawe/buffelgrass (Prosopis pallida/Pennisetum ciliare) The Isohyperthermic Torric Naturalized Grassland is on the islands of Maui, Molokai, Lanai, and Kauai. It has the same soil temperature regime (isohyperthermic), a drier soil moisture regime (torric), lesser average annual rainfall (10 to 30 versus 30 to 60 inches), similar elevation range, and supports plant species that thrive in drier, hotter environments compared to the Rocky Volcanic Ash Savanna. The Isohyperthermic Torric Naturalized Grassland has buffelgrass as the dominant forage grass species, whereas guineagrass is dominant in most of the Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland. The soils in the Isohyperthermic Torric Naturalized Grassland are similar to those of Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland.

Similar sites

VX161A01X008	Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland The Ustic Naturalized Grassland occurs only on Hawaii. It has the same soil temperature regime, soil moisture regime, and rainfall as the Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland. However, it runs to higher elevations up to 2700 versus 2100 feet) and so has some cooler areas, and it has shallow and very shallow, relatively coarse soils formed in volcanic ash over pahoehoe, giving it less water-holding capacity and rooting depth than the Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland. The two ecological sites share guineagrass as the typical forage grass species. The Ustic Naturalized Grassland has koa and mamane trees which do not occur in the IJsohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland.

VX161A01X008

Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland

The Ustic Naturalized Grassland occurs only on Hawaii. It has the same soil temperature regime, soil moisture regime, and rainfall as the Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland. However, it runs to higher elevations up to 2700 versus 2100 feet) and so has some cooler areas, and it has shallow and very shallow, relatively coarse soils formed in volcanic ash over pahoehoe, giving it less water-holding capacity and rooting depth than the Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland. The two ecological sites share guineagrass as the typical forage grass species. The Ustic Naturalized Grassland has koa and mamane trees which do not occur in the IJsohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Leucaena leucocephala
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	(1) Urochloa maxima (2) Neonotonia wightii

Legacy ID

R158XY401HI

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Physiographic features

This ecological site occurs on lava flows on sloping mountainsides of shield volcanoes. Lava flows are aa (loose, cobbly) or pahoehoe (smooth, relatively unbroken).

Much of these lands were previously in pineapple and/or sugarcane and/or other crops.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Shield volcano > Mountain slope > Lava flow unit
Runoff class	Low to very high
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	0 – 2500 ft
Slope	0 – 35 %
Water table depth	60 in
Aspect	W, N, E, S, SW

Climatic features

(Unless otherwise cited, the information in this section is derived from Western Regional Climate Center, cited 2020).

Summary for this ecological site

Average annual precipitation in this ecological site ranges from 25 to 60 inches (625 to 1500 mm). Extremes of average annual precipitation may range as low as 15 inches (375 mm) and as high as 80 inches (2000 mm) and even up to 100 inches (2500 millimeters) on Kauai. In these extreme rainfall areas, the ecological site grades into associated ecological sites. Most of the precipitation occurs from October through April. Average annual temperatures range from 70 to 74 degrees F (21 to 23 degrees C). Conditions typically are dry. Rainfall occurs as light trade wind showers that drift over or around the mountains from the windward side of the islands and as heavier rainfall during major winter storms. Major storms are important for soil moisture recharge, and the number of major storms is highly variable; drought can result from a winter with few or no storms. Due to the latitude, daylength varies little during the year, resulting in only about a 50 percent variation in solar energy input between June maximum to December minimum; this variation is somewhat less than that found in the continental United States. Conditions are generally clear to lightly cloudy.

The Hoolehua plains on the windward side of west Molokai and the slopes on the north side of Lanai are subject to severe wind erosion by trade winds funneled between the highlands of east and west Molokai or through the channel between Molokai and Lanai. Sites near the ocean along the northern coast of west Maui are frequently windy, which can stunt vegetation or promote shrubland over forest.

General principles

Air temperature in the Hawaiian Islands is buffered by the surrounding ocean so that the range in temperature through the year is narrow. This creates “iso-“ soil temperature regimes in which mean summer and winter temperatures differ by less than 6 degrees C (11 degrees F).

Two seasons can be defined during the year: a winter season from October through April and a summer season from May through September. Summer has warmer temperatures, steadier and stronger trade winds, few widespread rainstorms, and generally lower average monthly rainfall than winter. The Kona Coast of Hawaii (the “Big Island”) is the only area where summer rainfall exceeds winter rainfall. Differences in rainfall amounts between winter and summer are most marked in low elevation dry areas; wetter areas exhibit less seasonal variation in rainfall.

The islands lie within the trade wind zone. Moisture is picked up from the ocean by trade winds to an altitude of about 6,000 feet (1850 meters). As the trade winds from the northeast are forced up the islands’ mountains their moisture condenses, creating rain on the windward slopes; the leeward sides of the island receive little of this moisture. The zones of highest rainfall on the windward flanks of the highest mountains (more than 10,000 feet or 3075 meters), which include Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and Haleakala, occur at elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 feet (615 to 1230 meters). A temperature inversion that fluctuates between about 5,000 and 7,000 feet (1540 to 2150 meters) on these three highest mountains creates a boundary between lower moist air and higher dry air. Above the inversion, rainfall is scant, skies are usually clear, humidity is low, and temperatures can drop below freezing. On West Maui, Kauai, Molokai, Oahu, and Lanai, where the mountains are all lower than 6,000 feet (1850 meters), the highest rainfall amounts occur along or near the summits. The moist trade winds usually flow across these lower mountains and around the higher mountains. Lanai is sheltered from the trade winds by the much larger island of Maui, putting it in a rain shadow during trade wind weather; rainfall on Lanai is uncharacteristically low for Hawaii.

Besides the trade winds discussed above, other rainfall sources on the Hawaiian Islands include: a) Widespread winter storms that usually approach the islands from the west, producing heavy rainstorms that primarily affect the leeward sides but can envelope much larger areas; b) "Naulu storms" (Leopold 1948) caused by local convergence of sea breezes and trade winds to produce summertime cumulus clouds, resulting in infrequent, short-duration, high-intensity rainfall and afternoon shade over leeward dry areas; and c) Fog drip, particularly important to areas with relatively low rainfall, that adds a significant amount of water to areas where clouds intersect mountains (Juvik and Nullet 1993; Western Regional Climate Center).

The heaviest rains are brought by winter storms. The greatest amounts of storm rainfall do not always occur in areas with the highest average rainfall, and a storm may bring half of the mean annual rainfall to a dry area in one day.

Table 3 Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	370 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	370 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	30-60 in
Frost-free period (actual range)
Freeze-free period (actual range)
Precipitation total (actual range)	20-100 in
Frost-free period (average)
Freeze-free period (average)
Precipitation total (average)	40 in

Influencing water features

There are ephemeral streams that have formed gulches in this ecological site. These can flow strongly during and after rare heavy rainstorms. The gulches are partly vegetated with species typical of the rest of the ecological site.

Soil features

This extensive ecological site is correlated with many soil series and their phases that are classified in a variety of soil orders. However, most are related by certain factors. They are all well drained. They are in the moderately deep (20 to 40 inches or 50 to 100 centimeters), deep (40 to 60 inches or 100 to 150 centimeters), or very deep (deeper than 60 inches or 150 centimeters) classes; however, two soils are shallow (<20 inches or 50 centimeters). The soils formed in residuum or alluvium of basic igneous rock or in volcanic ash or volcanic ash plus tropospheric dust from Asia. The area is relatively old and weathered, as reflected in the soils mineralogy.

Surface soil pH ranges from 4.4 to 7.6; extreme pH of subsurface soils within 30 inches (75 centimeters) of the surface range from 4.6 to 7.5. These represent soil reaction (pH) that reflect parent materials and weathering. However, the Five Islands Soil Survey shows surface horizons of some soil series on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Lanai as having unusually low pH in relation to subsurface horizons, degree of weathering, and/or parent materials. These series include Hamakuapoko (pH 4.0), Hoolehua (pH 3.9), Koele (pH 4.5), Kolekole (4.4), Kunia (4.3), Wahiawa (5.6), and Waihuna (5.3). The pHs of these soil series were measured in fields cultivated for pineapple, which was common when the survey was performed in the late 1960s to early 1970s; pHs of other soils that were measured under sugarcane or pasture do not exhibit such intense acidity. The natural pH, or pH under sugarcane agriculture or pasture, of these surface soils is likely 1 to 2 pH units higher. It is possible that surface pH has reverted to normal in the decades since pineapple cultivation ended. If planning to establish crops, forage, or trees on these soils or in areas known to have been cultivated for pineapple, a pH test is advisable.

Most of the soils have isohyperthermic (very warm) soil temperature regimes, although some are classified with isothermic (warm) soil temperature regimes. Based on available soil temperature data, these isothermic soils are in the warmer part of isothermic range, close to isohyperthermic temperatures. Almost all the soils have a soil moisture regime of ustic (in normal years, dry for more than 90 cumulative days but less than 180 days). A few are intergrades between ustic and aridic (in normal years, dry for more than half of the growing season and moist for less than 90 consecutive days during the growing season.

EWA, HALEIWA, KAWAIHAPAI, KEMOO, KOELE, MOKULEIA, PAIA, WAIALUA, AND WAIKOMO soils are classified as Mollisols. Many of the soils in very warm (mostly isohyperthermic, but sometimes isothermic), dry (torric, aridic, or ustic with aridic intergrade) areas of Hawaii are Mollisols or have mollic properties. Their key properties are a combination of a relatively thick, dark surface horizon (mollic epipedon) that does not become hard when dry, a dominance of calcium among the extractable cations, and a dominance of crystalline clay minerals of moderate or high cation-exchange capacity. These properties are conducive to plant growth. Although Mollisols usually form under grass in seasonally dry climates, they can form under a forest ecosystem. The original native vegetation here was likely dry forest.

Kawaihapai soils occur in stream valleys and alluvial fans on Oahu and Molokai; they are sometimes flooded when streams overflow their banks. Where it occurs at the mouths of Pelekunu and Wailau Valleys on Molokai, this soil receives more rainfall than is typical of the series. The phase of Koele series in this ecological site is Koele-Rocky complex; Koele soil occurs on about 30 to 50 percent of the area, and rocky gulches and knolls occupy the rest of the area. Mokuleia soils consist of recent clayey alluvium over coral sand. In places, it receives up to 100 inches (2500 centimeters) of annual rainfall. High temperatures and fast drainage in the sand layers likely keep water availability to plants within the typical range of this ecological site.

HALIIMAILE, HELEMANO, HOOLEHUA, KAHANA, KOLEKOLE, KUNIA, LAHAINA, LIHUE, MAHANA, POHAKUPU, and WAHIAWA soils are classified as Oxisols or have oxic properties. Oxisols are more highly weathered than other soils; they have a deep, subsurface oxic horizon dominated by clay-size particles of iron and aluminum hydrous oxides. Plant nutrients have been largely leached out of the soil. At low pH, phosphorus is adsorbed onto the oxides, making it largely unavailable to plants, and the ability to retain cation nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium against leaching is low. With the exception of more acidic Haliimaile soils, these Oxisols have subsurface soils with near neutral, neutral, or basic pH, which would counteract the more extreme problems of phosphorus fixation and low nutrient cation retention. Most of the soluble silica, which is an important element for grass tissue stability, has been leached out of these soils. Cementation of clay-sized minerals by iron oxides create a stable, well drained, workable soil, but the cemented, sand-like (pseudosand) particles often create droughty conditions as well. Maintenance of soil organic matter will counteract this characteristic.

Helemano soils can receive more annual rainfall than typical for this ecological site, but they occur on sides of gulches with steep slopes of 25 to 80 percent, which causes much of the extra rainfall to run off. Hoolehua soils occur in depressions and in drainageways. They receive less annual rainfall than other soils in this ecological site. However, they have a surface umbric horizon (thick, dark, high in organic matter) and they receive run-on water that improves their water availability status.

ALAELOA, HAMAKUAPOKO, IOLEAU, KALAE, KALAPA, and MANANA soils are classified as Humults, in the Ultisols soil order. The unique properties common to Ultisols are an argillic horizon (containing clay translocated from overlying horizons) and a low supply of bases, particularly in the lower horizons. The cation-exchange capacity in Ultisols is moderate or low. The decrease in base saturation with increasing depth reflects cycling of bases to the surface by plants or additions from fertilizers. In Ultisols that have not been cultivated, the highest base saturation is normally in the few centimeters directly beneath the surface. The clayey horizons can retain substantial amounts of water, much of it available to plants. Ultisols in the suborder Humults have at least 1.5 percent organic matter in the upper part of the argillic horizon, as defined in the 1972 Soil Survey. Ultisols tend to form in moist climates that promote weathering of soil materials and leaching of base cations, resulting in strongly to extremely acid soils. Many Ultisols in Hawaii are presently in seasonally dry climates; their ultic characteristics formed under wetter ancient climates.

The soil phase “Alaeloa stony silty clay, overwash, 15 to 35 percent slopes” (map unit ANE) occurs on toe slopes and in depressions where it has accumulated an overburden of stony silty clay loam that is 1 to 4 feet (25 to 100 centimeters) thick; it has stones and gravel throughout the soil profile. Erosion hazard is severe and gullies are common.

The soil phase “Kalapa very rocky silty clay, 40 to 70 percent slopes” (map unit KEHF) has 10 to 40 percent cover of rock outcrops. Manana soils have a nonporous panlike sheet that is 0.1 to 0.25 inch (about 3 to 6 millimeters) thick at a depth of about 15 inches (37 centimeters); this restrictive layer causes roots to form a mat.

KALAUPAPA and TANTALUS soils are Andisols. They are shallow (<20 inches or 50 centimeters), very rocky soils. They originally formed in volcanic ash (see next paragraph) and are old and weathered enough to exhibit characteristics of Andisols but not to have developed into other soil orders.

The volcanic ash soils of Hawaii are derived mostly from basaltic ash that varies relatively little in chemical composition (Hazlett and Hyndman 1996; Vitousek 2004). Most of these volcanic ash soils are classified today as Andisols, which have these general management characteristics: ion exchange capacity that varies with pH, but mostly retaining anions such as nitrate; high phosphorus adsorption, which restricts phosphorus availability to plants; excellent physical properties (low bulk density, good friability, weak stickiness, stable soil aggregates) for cultivation, seedling emergence, and plant root growth; resistance to compaction and an ability to recover from compaction following repeated cycles of wetting and drying; and high capacity to hold water that is available to plants. These characteristics are due to the properties of the parent material, the clay-size noncrystalline materials formed by weathering, and the soil organic matter accumulated during soil formation (Shoji et al. 1993).

KOKOKAHI, PAPAA, and WAIHUNA soils are Vertisols. Soils in this Order consist of shrinking-swelling clay that causes the soils to develop deep cracks when dry. Vertisols typically support grassland and savanna vegetation which may be have a more open canopy than typical for this ecological site; field work must be performed to determine if this is true. These soils are deep (40 to 60 inches or 100 to 150 centimeters). Unless affected by pineapple cultivation, their pH is slightly acid to neutral throughout. They are often rich in plant nutrient cations and soluble silica. The high clay content holds water tightly, so available water content is not high. The most extensive phase of Waihuna series is Waihuna clay, 0 to 3 percent slopes (map unit WoA). It occurs on Lanai. Small depressions in this soil phase are subject to ponding of adequately long duration to damage crops or interfere with farming operations.

HAWI and KOHALA soils are Inceptisols. Soils in this Order are characterized by having minimal horizon development in their profiles. Both soils formed in volcanic ash and in the underlying residuum. The upper horizons of both soils are thick and contain relatively high amounts of organic matter. They are dark, have strong or moderate structure, and can have fairly low base saturation.

Adjoining the soils described above are areas mapped as MISCELLANEOUS AREAS. By definition, they have little or no soil and support little or no vegetation. In the Five Islands Soil Survey upon which this ecological site is based, Miscellaneous Areas are extensive, and most and were mapped by low-intensity reconnaissance methods that provide less-detailed information than that presented for soil series and their phases. In many cases, however, Miscellaneous Areas in Maui, Molokai, Lanai, Oahu, and Kauai are moderately- to well-vegetated and/or contain plant and animal species of interest to conservationists. They are either extremely difficult to access or were not considered important enough at the time of this survey to warrant full expenditure of resources. They are described in the following paragraphs.

ROCK LAND (rRK) ROCK LAND (rRK) occurs on parent materials of basalt or andesite. Rock cover on the surface ranges from 25 to 90 percent; soils are very shallow (less than 10 inches or 25 centimeters). Near this ecological site it occurs mostly in gulches created by ephemeral streams. Vegetation is generally sparse, but in some spots, vegetation is dense due to localized accumulations of soil and extra moisture from seasonal stream flows. Common plant species are kiawe (Prosopis pallida), klu (Vachellia farnesiana), pili grass (Heteropogon contortus), uhaloa (Waltheria indica), and koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala).

ROCK OUTCROP (rRO) ROCK OUTCROP (rRO) has exposed bedrock covering more than ninety percent of the surface. Small areas of lithified coral sand occur on Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, and Molokai. Gulches on Kauai support sparse vegetation on steep sides and denser vegetation in gulch bottoms. Gulch sides on Maui, Molokai, and Lanai are sparsely vegetated; bottoms can be sparse or moderately vegetated.

ROUGH BROKEN LAND ( rRR) ROUGH BROKEN LAND (rRR) occurs on very steep sides of gulches and mountainsides. Soil amounts and characteristics are variable; beneath the soil is soft weathered rock. Most occurrences in the vicinity of this ecological site appear to support substantial vegetation cover. Common plant species are common guava (Psidium guajava), Natal redtop (Melinis repens), bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala), and molassesgrass (Melinis minutiflora). Active soil erosion is common.

ROUGH BROKEN AND STONY LAND (rRS) ROUGH BROKEN AND STONY LAND (rRS) occurs on Maui in very steep, stony gulches. Some soil is present in variable amounts. It generally supports shrubs, small trees, and grass with a significant amount of bare ground.

STONY ALLUVIAL LAND (rSM) STONY ALLUVIAL LAND (rSM) consists of stones, boulders, and soil deposited by streams along bottoms of gulches and on alluvial fans. Much of it appears to be well vegetated, especially in gulch bottoms, although the driest gulch bottoms are sparsely vegetated. Common species are kiawe (Prosopis pallida), sweet acacia or klu (Acacia farnesiana), ilima (Sida cordifolia), pili (Heteropogon contortus), and lantana (Lantana camara).

STONY COLLUVIAL LAND (rSO) occurs on Molokai. It consists of talus slopes that are a mix of stones, boulders, and a small amount of soil material. It has slopes of 25 to 40 percent. This Miscellaneous Area is typically fully vegetated with christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius), koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala), kukui (Aleurites moluccanus), and Java plum (Syzygium cumini).

BLOWN-OUT LAND (BW) occurs mainly on the windswept northern plateau of Lanai. It is mostly barren of vegetation and eroded down to compact subsoil or soft weathered rock. About 10 percent of the area is hummocks or small dunes that support dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), molassesgrass (Melinis minutiflora), bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), and ilima (Sida fallax). Strong winds are common. Soil tests show this land to be low in plant nutrients.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Basaltic volcanic ash – volcanic rock
Surface texture	(1) Cobbly silty clay (2) Very cobbly silty clay loam (3) Extremely stony clay
Family particle size	(1) Clayey
Drainage class	Moderately well drained to somewhat excessively drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to moderately rapid
Soil depth	50 – 72 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	0 – 15 %
Surface fragment cover >3"	0 – 15 %
Available water capacity (0-40in)	4 – 6.2 in
Electrical conductivity (0-40in)	Not specified
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in)	Not specified
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-30in)	4.4 – 7.6
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	Not specified
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	Not specified

Table 5. Representative soil features (actual values)

Drainage class	Not specified
Permeability class	Slow to moderately rapid
Soil depth	15 – 72 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	0 %
Surface fragment cover >3"	0 %
Available water capacity (0-40in)	0 in
Electrical conductivity (0-40in)	0 – 2 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in)	0
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-30in)	4 – 7.6
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	0 %
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	0 %

Ecological dynamics

The information in this ecological site description (ESD), including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed using archaeological and historical data, professional experience, and scientific studies. The information is representative of a complex set of plant communities. Not all scenarios or plants are included. Key indicator plants, animals, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.

Natural Disturbances

There have been no lava flows or heavy volcanic ash flows on this ecological site that are recent enough to have affected the current vegetation and soils. It is possible that strong storms may sometimes cause minor windthrow of trees. Wildfires started by lightning rarely may affect this ecological site.

Human Disturbances

Human-related disturbances have been more important than natural disturbances in this ecological site since the arrival of Polynesians and, later, Europeans. This is reflected in the State and Transition Model Diagram.

The first humans are believed to have migrated to Hawaii between 1000 and 1260 AD (Allen, 2014, Wilmhurst, 2011). Subsequent migrations and population growth increased so that by 1600 AD at least 80% of all the lands in Hawaii below about 1500 feet (roughly 500 meters) in elevation had been extensively altered by humans (Kirch 1982); some pollen core data suggest that up to 100% of lowlands may have been altered (Athens 1997). By the time of European contact late in the 18th century, the Polynesians had developed high population densities and placed large areas under intensive agriculture (Cuddihy and Stone 1990).

Prehistoric native lowland forest disturbance can be attributed to clearing for agriculture by hand or by fire, introduction of new plants, animals, possibly plant diseases, and wood harvesting. The introduced Pacific rat would have eaten bird eggs, invertebrates, and the seeds of native plants (Athens 1997).

After the arrival of Europeans, documentary evidence attests to accelerated and extensive deforestation, erosion, siltation, and changes in local weather patterns (Kirch 1983) due to more intensive land use, modern tools, and introduction of more plant, animal, and microbe species. Introduced kiawe trees (Prosopis pallida) are widespread in this ecological site.

The Polynesians introduced dogs, Pacific rats, and small pigs to the islands. After European discovery, cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and larger European pigs were introduced in the final decades of the 18th century. These animals ranged free on the islands, becoming very numerous and destructive by the early decades of the 19th century. Additionally, packs of feral dogs had become established, as confirmed by reports of their depredations on sheep. By 1851, records reported severe overstocking of pastures, lack of fences, and large numbers of feral livestock (Henke 1929).

Through the 20th and into the 21st centuries, increases in human populations with attendant land development, as well as accelerated introduction of non-native mammals (including deer), birds, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, plants, and microorganisms, have brought about dramatic changes to wild ecosystems in Hawaii. Much of the original forest of this ecological site was cleared and converted to intensive, irrigated production of sugarcane and pineapple, and the remaining native plant communities have been highly disturbed. Much of the area had been under cultivation, was later abandoned, and then converted to grazing land or urban uses.

The original native vegetation was dry forest. Common species, based on the current environment and remnant occurrences, were lama (Diospyros sandwicense), alahee (Psydrax odorata), ohe makai (Polyscias sandwicensis), wiliwili (Erythrina sandwicensis), naio (Myoporum sandwicense), koaia (Acacia koaia), aalii (Dodonaea viscosa), ulei (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia), huehue (Cocculus orbiculatus), and native grasses.

State and transition model

Custom diagram

Standard diagram

Figure 2. STM for Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland.

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Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference

2. Invaded Understory

3. Native Forest

4. Shrub Invaded Grassland

5. Exotic Tree Invaded State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)

1. Reference

5. Exotic Tree Invaded State

2. Invaded Understory

R1A	-	It may be possible to restore State 1 to a plant community resembling State 3 Native Forest. Weed control must be applied to forage species and the many opportunistic plant species that would invade the site. Weed control would be a perpetual process to maintain the site. Wildfire must be excluded by establishment and maintenance of a firebreak; domestic and feral ungulates must be excluded by a suitably designed and maintained fence or application of animal control measures. Extensive planting of native species would follow.
T1A	-	State 1 Reference transitions to State 4 Shrub Invaded Grassland with the gradual invasion of weedy shrubs and small trees which occur in the absence of disturbance such as fire or brush control. If the site contained abundant koa haole before abandonment, these small trees will overtop the guineagrass and greatly increase in abundance. This transition may be avoided through application of brush management and invasive plant species control.
T2A	-	State 2 Invaded Understory transitions to State 1 Reference by land clearing with heavy machinery followed up by invasive plant species control. Land clearing would probably promote germination of the weed seed bank in the soil, requiring additional weed control. After clearing and weed control, the site would be planted to forage species.
R2A	-	State 2 Invaded Understory may be restored to a facsimile of State 3 Native Forest, by removal of the introduced understory through application invasive plant species control. Reintroduction of native understory species is required. The site must be fenced securely or animal control measures implemented to exclude domestic and feral ungulates from the site.
T2B	-	State 2 Invaded Understory transitions to State 5 Exotic Tree Invaded by growth of introduced tree species through and above the native canopy. Lack of reproduction leads to gradual loss of most native tree species. This transition can be avoided by applying brush management and invasive plant species control.
T3B	-	State 3 Native Forest transitions to State 1 Reference by clearing the forest with heavy machinery and planting desirable forage species. Apply brush management and invasive plant species control as needed.
T3A	-	State 3 Native Forest transitions to State 2 Invaded Understory through grazing, browsing, rooting, and trampling by domestic or feral ungulates (cows, sheep, deer, goats, and pigs). These activities destroy small native plant species and seedlings and saplings of large species. Regeneration of the native forest is prevented, leading to tree populations consisting almost entirely of mature plants. Lack of competition from native plants, introduction of weed seeds, and disturbance of the soil lead to an understory dominated by introduced plant species. Weeds can invade intact native forest even in the absence of ungulates and gradually bring about the transition. Invasive vines, shrubs, and small trees will grow under intact native canopies and begin to degrade the forest. Eventually, introduced grasses provide fine fuels that can carry wildfires that destroy the native tree canopy. This transition may be avoided by excluding domestic livestock and feral ungulates from the site with fencing or animal control measures and by implementing invasive plant species control.
R4A	-	State 4 Shrub Invaded Grassland can be restored to State 1 Reference by brush management with follow-up invasive plant species control of resprouting shrubs and emerging weedy forbs. Forage species may then be replanted and maintained by prescribed grazing. For large, densely weedy sites or if fast results are not required, it is possible to eliminate invasive small trees, shrubs, and undergrowth by planting glycine (Neonotonia wightii) to overtop and smother weeds; this is done in conjunction with foraging by sheep and goats to consume smaller weeds. Eventually, the dead trees and shrubs collapse under the weight of the glycine; the glycine is then eaten by livestock. This process takes about eight years (Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch, personal communication, 2006).
T4A	-	State 4 Shrub Invaded Grassland transitions to State 5 Exotic Tree Invaded in the absence of disturbances such as fire or brush control. Fast-growing introduced tree species invade Shrub Invaded Grassland and quickly overtop shrubs. This transition may be avoided with implementation of brush control and invasive plant species control.
R5B	-	State 5 Exotic Tree Invaded may be restored to State 1 Reference. Total clearing of the site would be necessary. If clearing is done by heavy machinery, soil disturbance would occur. This would probably induce germination of the weed seed bank and increase the potential for soil erosion. Invasive plant species control and brush management must then be applied multiple times to control new weed germination and resprouting. After clearing and weed control, the site would be planted to forage species. Domestic and feral ungulates must be excluded until forages are well established; prescribed grazing must then be applied.
R5A	-	It may be possible to restore State 5 Exotic Tree Invaded to a community resembling State 3 Native Forest. Total clearing of the site would be necessary. Alternatively, it may be worthwhile to kill taller weed species in place by herbicide applications in order to provide some shelter from the sun. If clearing is done by heavy machinery, soil disturbance would occur. This would induce germination of the weed seed bank and increase the potential for soil erosion. Invasive plant species control and brush management would be long-term. A firebreak must be created and maintained, and ungulates would have to be excluded by a suitable fence or by invasive species pest management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Koa haole (white leadtree)/guineagrass/glycine Leucaena leucocephala/Urochloa maxima/Neonotonia wightii

1.2. Barbwire grass – guineagrass Cymbopogon refractus – Urochloa maxima

P1.1A	-	Community phase 1.1 converts to phase 1.2 by fire that reduces competitiveness of guineagrass and allows invasion of weeds, particularly undesirable grasses. Continuous grazing without adequate rest for preferred forages will have the same result. This conversion by either factor can be avoided if timely application of deferred and/or prescribed grazing is carried out to control guineagrass stature and to allow recovery of desirable species before weeds become dominant.
P1.2A	-	Community phase 1.2 can be converted to phase 1.1 by removing undesirable species and favoring and/or reestablishing desirable pasture species. If adequate stands of guineagrass remain, prescribed grazing may eventually effect the conversion. Pitted beardgrass and Natal red top have some value as forage. However, barbwire grass, Colombian bluestem, and broomsedge beardgrass are very unpalatable to livestock and therefore difficult to control by grazing. If pasture condition is very poor, weed control followed by reestablishment of guineagrass will be necessary.

State 1
Reference

Figure 3. Reference State 1.1. Guineagrass with koa haole. Kahana silty clay, 15 to 25 percent slopes (KbD), elevation 250 feet, annual rainfall 40 inches. Maui. David Clausnitzer, 7/21/08.

Figure 4. Reference State 1.1. Guineagrass with dense, unbrowsed koa haole. Rough broken and stony land (rRS), elevation 300 feet, annual rainfall 40 inches. Maui. David Clausnitzer, 7/21/08.

Figure 5. Reference State 1.1. Guineagrass without koa haole; start of christmasberry invasion. Kahana silty clay, 15 to 25 % slopes (KbD), elevation 250 feet, annual rainfall 40 inches. Maui. David Clausnitzer, 7/21/08.

This state consists of two community phases. It is naturalized grassland with introduced grasses, forbs, and trees. Scattered, large trees are often present. Some grasslands are on moderately deep and deep ash soils on former sugarcane plantations.

Community 1.1
Koa haole (white leadtree)/guineagrass/glycine Leucaena leucocephala/Urochloa maxima/Neonotonia wightii

Naturalized grasslands dominated by guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), koa haole or white leadtree (Leucaena leucocephala), and glycine (Neonotonia wightii).

With continuous heavy grazing, particularly by cattle, preferred forage grasses decrease, as will preferred small trees, vines, and shrubs. Less preferred grass, forb, and shrub species increase under such circumstances. With severe deterioration, shrubby species can increase to eventually dominate.

Opiuma (Pithecellobium dulce) and christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius) are common. Preferred forage species are guineagrass, the leguminous vine glycine (Neonotonia wightii), and koa haole, a small leguminous tree. At the lowest, driest extremes of this ecological site, buffelgrass (Cenchrus ciliaris) is often the dominant grass species. At the highest, most moist extremes, kikuyugrass (Cenchrus clandestinus) can be the dominant grass. In areas transitional to the high, moist extremes, dominance of either guineagrass or kikuyugrass is determined by grazing intensity, with kikuyugrass favored under heavier grazing. In this case, guineagrass occurs only along fence lines and other spots where it is inaccessible to grazing animals.

Dominant plant species

white leadtree (Leucaena leucocephala), tree
guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), grass
perennial soybean (Neonotonia wightii), other herbaceous

Community 1.2
Barbwire grass – guineagrass Cymbopogon refractus – Urochloa maxima

Opiuma (Pithecellobium dulce) and christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius) are common. Guineagrass is present in minor amounts. Primary increaser grass species that come to dominate this community under heavy grazing include pitted beardgrass (Bothriochloa pertusa), Natal redtop (Melinis repens), barbwiregrass (Cymbopogon refractus), feather fingergrass (Chloris virgata), Rhodesgrass (Chloris gayana), and wiregrass or Indian goosegrass (Eleusine indica), rat-tail grass (Sporobolus africanus syn. S. indicus var. capensis), crabgrass (Digitaria spp.), Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), Colombian bluestem (Schizachyrium condensatum), and broomsedge beardgrass (Andropogon virginicus). Unpalatable, increaser forbs include sensitive partridge pea (Chamaecrista nictitans), sensitive plant or shameplant (Mimosa pudica), rattlepod (Crotalaria mucronata), red pualele or lilac tasselflower (Emilia sonchifolia), common sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus), lion’s ear mint (Leonotis nepetifolia), and spiny amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus). Shrubby species include lantana (Lantana camara), apple of Sodom (Solanum linnaeaum), false mallow (Malvastrum coromandelianum), cocklebur (Xanthium saccharatum), Sacramento bur (Triumfetta semitriloba), balloon plant (Asclepias physocarpa), christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius), hairy mallow (Abutilon grandifolia), and castor bean (Ricinus communis).

Dominant plant species

barbwire grass (Cymbopogon refractus), grass
guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), grass

Pathway P1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Community phase 1.1 converts to phase 1.2 by fire that reduces competitiveness of guineagrass and allows invasion of weeds, particularly undesirable grasses. Continuous grazing without adequate rest for preferred forages will have the same result. This conversion by either factor can be avoided if timely application of deferred and/or prescribed grazing is carried out to control guineagrass stature and to allow recovery of desirable species before weeds become dominant.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Grazing
Planned Grazing System

Key drivers

Livestock grazing or browsing
Nonnative plant species presence and/or establishment

Key ecosystem services affected

Food and fiber: livestock forage

Pathway P1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Community phase 1.2 can be converted to phase 1.1 by removing undesirable species and favoring and/or reestablishing desirable pasture species. If adequate stands of guineagrass remain, prescribed grazing may eventually effect the conversion. Pitted beardgrass and Natal red top have some value as forage. However, barbwire grass, Colombian bluestem, and broomsedge beardgrass are very unpalatable to livestock and therefore difficult to control by grazing. If pasture condition is very poor, weed control followed by reestablishment of guineagrass will be necessary.

State 2
Invaded Understory

Figure 6. State 2.1. Invaded understory. Native lama forest with understory of introduced grasses. Koele-Rocky complex (KRX), elevation 250 feet, annual rainfall 40 inches. Maui. David Clausnitzer, 7/21/08.

This state consists of one community phase having an open canopy of common native trees with an understory of introduced grasses, ferns, vines, small trees, and shrubs. Foraging by feral or domestic ungulates removes native understory plants and prevents regeneration of overstory species, resulting in a mature and diminishing canopy of native trees. This may occur more gradually by weed invasion into intact native forest. The understory of this plant community contains fine fuels that are susceptible to wildfire.

Community 2.1
Lama – ohia lehua/pukiawe/barbwire grass/Asian swordfern (Diospyros sandwicensis – Metrosideros polymorpha/Leptecophylla tameiameiae/Cymbopogon refractus/Nephrolepis multiflora syn. N. brownii)

Native tree species dominate the overstory. The understory consists of a variable array of introduced plant species along with remnant native species.

The overstory is dominated by lama, ohia lehua, or a combination of these species. Tree species diversity varies from widely among locations. Higher, moister areas may be dominated by olopua (Nestegis sandwicensis). Pandanus or Tahitian screwpine (Pandanus tectorius) is found at lower elevations near the coast, but it is apparently much less abundant than in the past.

Among native shrubs, aalii (Dodonaea viscosa) and pukiawe (Leptecophylla tameiameiae) may still be present. The introduced shrub lantana (Lantana camara) can be very abundant, producing stands that make foot transit difficult. The introduced vine huehue haole or corkystem passionflower (Passiflora suberosa) can become very abundant, covering the canopies of remnant native understory plants. Asian swordfern (Nephrolepis multiflora syn. N. brownii) is a weedy introduced fern that may be abundant. Introduced grasses are abundant where sufficient light penetrates the canopy. Christmasberry or Brazilian pepper tree (Schinus terebinthifolius), an introduced small tree that produces a dense, shady canopy, may be abundant.

Dominant plant species

lama (Diospyros sandwicensis), tree
'ohi'a lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), tree
pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae), shrub
barbwire grass (Cymbopogon refractus), grass
Asian swordfern (Nephrolepis multiflora), other herbaceous

State 3
Native Forest

Figure 7. State 3. Native Forest State. This photo of relic native lama and alahee trees on Molokai serves a hypothetical representation of a restored native forest state. John Proctor. 2/26/21.

This state consists of one community phase. This description is hypothetical, because very little native vegetation remains in this ecological site. The following description is based on similar ecological sites on the Island of Hawaii. The general appearance of this ecological site is an open to nearly closed canopy of medium to tall height to 40 feet (12 meters) when dominated by lama (Diospyros sandwicensis) or to 70 feet (22 meters) when dominated by ohia lehua, an understory of shrubs and small trees, and a ground layer of vines, forbs, and grasses. The canopy becomes shorter and sparser where the forest grades into drier and/or windier areas near the coast.

Community 3.1
Lama – ohia lehua/alahee Diospyros – Metrosideros polymorpha/Psydrax odorata

The tree canopy is dominated by lama (Diospyros sandwicensis) and ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). Alahee (Psydrax odorata), a small tree, is the most abundant species in the understory. Common shrubs are aalii (Dodonaea viscosa), ilima (Sida fallax), ulei (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia), and akia (Wikstroemia sandwicensis). Huehue (Cocculus orbiculatus) is the most common vine. Native forbs, grasses, and ferns are present but not abundant.

Dominant plant species

lama (Diospyros sandwicensis), tree
'ohi'a lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), tree
alahe'e (Psydrax odorata), shrub

State 4
Shrub Invaded Grassland

Figure 8. State 4. Shrub Invaded. Dominated by lantana w/ scattered christmasberry. Little remnant bunch grass, high % bare ground. Hoolehua silty clay, 7 to 15 % slopes, elevation ~ 800 feet, annual rainfall 24 inches. Molokai. John Proctor. 2/23/21

This state consists of one community phase. It develops in land cleared by fire or on abandoned grazing land or abandoned farmland. Shrubs are dominant in canopy cover and stature. Typically, an array of introduced grass species is present. There is a moderate but increasing cover of small trees, some which potentially can grow to large stature. This tree cover creates the potential for a transition to State 5 Exotic Tree Invaded.

Community 4.1
Christmasberry (Brazilian peppertree)/aalii – lantana/Asian swordfern Schinus terebinthifolius/Dodonaea viscosa – Lantana camara/Nephrolepis multiflora syn. N. brownii

The shrub community can be a mix of native and introduced species. The most common introduced trees present are christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius), koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala), and opiuma (Pithecellobium dulce). When managed pastures have been abandoned and wildfires have not yet occurred, the plant community consists of very tall guineagrass and a dense stand of koa haole trees. In some cases, native shrubs are abundant.

The overstory most typically may contain christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius) and/or opiuma (Pithecellobium dulce). Small trees that may be present are the introduced species koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala), klu (Vachellia farnesiana), and common guava (Psidium guajava). Lantana (Lantana camara) is the most common shrub. Introduced Asian swordfern (Nephrolepis minutiflora syn. N. brownii) is usually abundant. The most common grasses are broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) and molassesgrass (Melinis minutiflora), although guineagrass is dominant in some sites.

Dominant plant species

Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius), tree
Florida hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa), tree
lantana (Lantana camara), shrub
Asian swordfern (Nephrolepis multiflora), other herbaceous

State 5
Exotic Tree Invaded State

Figure 9. State 5.1. Exotic tree-invaded state. Acacia confusa-dominated area, northwestern West Maui. Rough broken and stony land (rRS), elevation 200 feet, annual rainfall 40 inches. Maui. David Clausnitzer, 7/21/08.

Figure 10. State 5.1. Exotic tree-invaded state. Christmasberry-dominated area near northern coast of West Maui. Stony alluvial land (rSM), elevation 250 feet, annual rainfall 40 inches. Maui. David Clausnitzer, 7/21/08.

This state is comprised of one community phase dominated by introduced trees. Density and composition of understory shrubs, forbs, and grasses varies greatly with overstory closure and height, which affects the susceptibility of this plant community to fire. The density, vigor, and biomass of introduced vegetation can be very high, making restoration to other states expensive and difficult.

Dominant plant species

Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius), tree
lantana (Lantana camara), shrub

Community 5.1
Christmasberry (Brazilian peppertree)/lantana Schinus terebinthifolius/Lantana camara

In many cases, the overstory consists of very dense christmasberry that is 15 to 25 feet (4.5 to 3.25 meters) tall with very little understory. Introduced tree species such as silk oak (Grevillea robusta), autograph tree (Clusia rosea), kukui (Aleurites moluccana), and octopus tree (Schefflera actinophylla) that have greater height potentials than christmasberry are often able to grow up through the christmasberry canopy and eventually dominate the site. Remnant, mature ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) trees may be present but are not able to regenerate. Native alahee (Psydrax odorata) trees sometimes are able to reproduce and maintain a sparse population in the understory.

The overstory composition can be highly variable from site to site, but christmasberry is typically the most abundant species. Christmasberry often dominates the understory (

Restoration pathway R1A
State 1 to 3

Reference

Native Forest

It may be possible to restore State 1 to a plant community resembling State 3 Native Forest. Weed control must be applied to forage species and the many opportunistic plant species that would invade the site. Weed control would be a perpetual process to maintain the site. Wildfire must be excluded by establishment and maintenance of a firebreak; domestic and feral ungulates must be excluded by a suitably designed and maintained fence or application of animal control measures. Extensive planting of native species would follow.

Conservation practices

Fence
Firebreak
Native Plant Community Restoration and Management
Invasive Plant Species Control
Invasive Species Pest Management

Transition T1A
State 1 to 4

Reference

Shrub Invaded Grassland

State 1 Reference transitions to State 4 Shrub Invaded Grassland with the gradual invasion of weedy shrubs and small trees which occur in the absence of disturbance such as fire or brush control. If the site contained abundant koa haole before abandonment, these small trees will overtop the guineagrass and greatly increase in abundance. This transition may be avoided through application of brush management and invasive plant species control.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Invasive Plant Species Control

Key drivers

Fire frequency

Key ecosystem services affected

Food and fiber: livestock forage

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

Invaded Understory

Reference

State 2 Invaded Understory transitions to State 1 Reference by land clearing with heavy machinery followed up by invasive plant species control. Land clearing would probably promote germination of the weed seed bank in the soil, requiring additional weed control. After clearing and weed control, the site would be planted to forage species.

Conservation practices

Land Clearing
Range Planting
Invasive Plant Species Control

Key drivers

Seeding

Key ecosystem services affected

Pollination
Genetic resources
Spiritual and religious values
Climate regulation: carbon cycling and storage
Wildlife habitat
Animal biodiversity
Plant biodiversity

Transition R2A
State 2 to 3

Invaded Understory

Native Forest

State 2 Invaded Understory may be restored to a facsimile of State 3 Native Forest, by removal of the introduced understory through application invasive plant species control. Reintroduction of native understory species is required. The site must be fenced securely or animal control measures implemented to exclude domestic and feral ungulates from the site.

Conservation practices

Fence
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats
Native Plant Community Restoration and Management
Invasive Plant Species Control
Invasive Species Pest Management

Key drivers

Seeding

Key ecosystem services affected

Educational values
Pollination
Aesthetic values
Genetic resources
Sense of place
Nutrient cycling
Spiritual and religious values
Climate regulation: carbon cycling and storage
Wildlife habitat
Animal biodiversity
Plant biodiversity
Climate regulation

Transition T2B
State 2 to 5

Invaded Understory

Exotic Tree Invaded State

State 2 Invaded Understory transitions to State 5 Exotic Tree Invaded by growth of introduced tree species through and above the native canopy. Lack of reproduction leads to gradual loss of most native tree species. This transition can be avoided by applying brush management and invasive plant species control.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Invasive Species Pest Management

Key drivers

Nonnative plant species presence and/or establishment

Key ecosystem services affected

Pollination
Aesthetic values
Genetic resources
Sense of place
Nutrient cycling
Spiritual and religious values
Wildlife habitat
Animal biodiversity
Plant biodiversity
Climate regulation

Transition T3B
State 3 to 1

Native Forest

Reference

State 3 Native Forest transitions to State 1 Reference by clearing the forest with heavy machinery and planting desirable forage species. Apply brush management and invasive plant species control as needed.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Land Clearing
Range Planting
Invasive Plant Species Control

Key drivers

Seeding

Key ecosystem services affected

Cultural heritage values
Educational values
Pollination
Aesthetic values
Genetic resources
Sense of place
Nutrient cycling
Knowledge systems
Spiritual and religious values
Wildlife habitat
Animal biodiversity
Climate regulation

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

Native Forest

Invaded Understory

State 3 Native Forest transitions to State 2 Invaded Understory through grazing, browsing, rooting, and trampling by domestic or feral ungulates (cows, sheep, deer, goats, and pigs). These activities destroy small native plant species and seedlings and saplings of large species. Regeneration of the native forest is prevented, leading to tree populations consisting almost entirely of mature plants. Lack of competition from native plants, introduction of weed seeds, and disturbance of the soil lead to an understory dominated by introduced plant species. Weeds can invade intact native forest even in the absence of ungulates and gradually bring about the transition. Invasive vines, shrubs, and small trees will grow under intact native canopies and begin to degrade the forest. Eventually, introduced grasses provide fine fuels that can carry wildfires that destroy the native tree canopy. This transition may be avoided by excluding domestic livestock and feral ungulates from the site with fencing or animal control measures and by implementing invasive plant species contol.

Conservation practices

Fence
Firebreak
Invasive Plant Species Control
Invasive Species Pest Management

Key drivers

Wildlife grazing or browsing
Livestock grazing or browsing
Nonnative pest presence and/or establishment
Nonnative plant species presence and/or establishment

Key ecosystem services affected

Cultural heritage values
Educational values
Pollination
Aesthetic values
Genetic resources
Sense of place
Nutrient cycling
Knowledge systems
Spiritual and religious values
Climate regulation: carbon cycling and storage
Wildlife habitat
Animal biodiversity
Plant biodiversity
Climate regulation

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

Shrub Invaded Grassland

Reference

State 4 Shrub Invaded Grassland can be restored to State 1 Reference by brush management with follow-up invasive plant species control of resprouting shrubs and emerging weedy forbs. Forage species may then be replanted and maintained by prescribed grazing. For large, densely weedy sites or if fast results are not required, it is possible to eliminate invasive small trees, shrubs, and undergrowth by planting glycine (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=NEWI2" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Neonotonia wightii</i></a>) to overtop and smother weeds; this is done in conjunction with foraging by sheep and goats to consume smaller weeds. Eventually, the dead trees and shrubs collapse under the weight of the glycine; the glycine is then eaten by livestock. This process takes about eight years (Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch, personal communication, 2006).

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Range Planting
Planned Grazing System
Prescribed Grazing
Invasive Plant Species Control

Transition T4A
State 4 to 5

Shrub Invaded Grassland

Exotic Tree Invaded State

State 4 Shrub Invaded Grassland transitions to State 5 Exotic Tree Invaded in the absence of disturbances such as fire or brush control. Fast-growing introduced tree species invade Shrub Invaded Grassland and quickly overtop shrubs. This transition may be avoided with implementation of brush control and invasive plant species control.

Key drivers

Nonnative plant species presence and/or establishment
Fire frequency

Key ecosystem services affected

Food and fiber: livestock forage

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 1

Exotic Tree Invaded State

Reference

State 5 Exotic Tree Invaded may be restored to State 1 Reference. Total clearing of the site would be necessary. If clearing is done by heavy machinery, soil disturbance would occur. This would probably induce germination of the weed seed bank and increase the potential for soil erosion. Invasive plant species control and brush management must then be applied multiple times to control new weed germination and resprouting. After clearing and weed control, the site would be planted to forage species. Domestic and feral ungulates must be excluded until forages are well established; prescribed grazing must then be applied.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Fence
Prescribed Grazing
Range Planting
Planned Grazing System
Invasive Plant Species Control
Invasive Species Pest Management

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 3

Exotic Tree Invaded State

Native Forest

It may be possible to restore State 5 Exotic Tree Invaded to a community resembling State 3 Native Forest. Total clearing of the site would be necessary. Alternatively, it may be worthwhile to kill taller weed species in place by herbicide applications in order to provide some shelter from the sun. If clearing is done by heavy machinery, soil disturbance would occur. This would induce germination of the weed seed bank and increase the potential for soil erosion. Invasive plant species control and brush management would be long-term. A firebreak must be created and maintained, and ungulates would have to be excluded by a suitable fence or by invasive species pest management.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Fence
Firebreak
Land Clearing
Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats
Native Plant Community Restoration and Management
Invasive Plant Species Control
Invasive Species Pest Management

Additional community tables

Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 7. Community 1.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 8. Community 2.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 9. Community 3.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 10. Community 4.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 11. Community 5.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Supporting information

Inventory data references

1. Hawaii county, Hawaii: a. North Kohala District. 20.13.38 N Latitude, 155.52.43 W Longitude (degrees.minutes.seconds). USGS Quad: Mahukona. Parker Ranch -- 2.5 miles north of turnoff to Kapaa County Beach Park on State Route 270. Located 0.5 miles southwest, on unpaved ranch road on east side of highway. Pasture on south side of unpaved ranch road. b. North Kohala District. 20.16.41 N Latitude, 155.51.38 W Longitude (degrees.minutes.seconds). USGS Quad: Hawi. Boteilho Lease -- 1.9 miles north on paved road from State Route 270 that leads to the Upolu Airport. In pasture on west side of paved road. 2. Maui County, Hawaii: a. Maui county, Island of Maui. Finalized type location not established. b. Maui county, Island of Molokai. Finalized type location not established. 3. Honolulu County, Island of Oahu. Finalized type location not established. 4. Kauai County, Island of Kauai. Finalized type location not established.

Other references

Definitions
These definitions have been greatly simplified for brevity and do not cover every aspect of each topic.

Aa lava: A type of basaltic lava having a rough, jagged, clinkery surface and a vesicular interior.

Alluvial: Materials or processes associated with transportation and/or deposition by running water.

Aquic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is free of dissolved oxygen because it is saturated by water. This regime typically exists in bogs or swamps.

Aquisalids: These are salty soils in wet areas. Although wet, the dissolved salts make the soils physiologically dry (the chemical activity, or effective concentration, of water is low). Aquisalids typically support plant species that are adapted to these conditions.

Aridic soil moisture regime: A regime in which defined parts of the soil are, in normal years, dry for more than half of the growing season and moist for less than 90 consecutive days during the growing season. In Hawaii it is associated with hot, dry areas with plants such as kiawe, wiliwili, and buffelgrass. The terms aridic and torric are basically the same.

Ash field: a land area covered by a thick or distinctive deposit of volcanic ash that can be traced to a specific source and has well defined boundaries. The term “ash flow” is erroneously used in the Physiographic section of this ESD due to a flaw in the national database.

Ashy: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of less than 30 percent; a soil that holds relatively less water than “medial” and “hydrous” soils.

Available water capacity: The amount of soil water available to plants to the depth of the first root-restricting layer.

Basal area or basal cover: The cross sectional area of the stem or stems of a plant or of all plants in a stand.

Blue rock: The dense, hard, massive lava that forms the inner core of an aa lava flow.

Bulk density: the weight of dry soil per unit of volume. Lower bulk density indicates a greater amount of pore space that can hold water and air in a soil.

CaCO3 equivalent: The amount of free lime in a soil. Free lime exists as solid material and typically occurs in regions with a dry climate.

Canopy cover: The percentage of ground covered by the vertical projection downward of the outermost perimeter of the spread of plant foliage. Small openings within the canopy are included.

Community pathway: A description of the causes of shifts between community phases. A community pathway is reversible and is attributable to succession, natural disturbances, short-term climatic variation, and facilitating practices, such as grazing management.

Community phase: A unique assemblage of plants and associated dynamic soil properties within a state.

Dominant species: Plant species or species groups that exert considerable influence upon a community due to size, abundance, or cover.

Drainage class: The frequency, duration, and depth of a water table in a soil. There are seven drainage classes, ranging from “excessively drained” (soils with very rare or very deep water tables) to “well drained” (soils that provide ample water for plant growth but are not so wet as to inhibit root growth) to “very poorly drained” (soils with a water table at or near the surface during much of the growing season that inhibits growth of most plants).

Electrical conductivity (EC): A measure of the salinity of a soil. The standard unit is deciSiemens per meter (dS/m), which is numerically equivalent to millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). An EC greater than about 4 dS/m indicates a salinity level that is unfavorable to growth of most plants.

Friability: A soil consistency term pertaining to the ease of crumbling of soils.

Gleyed: A condition of soil from which iron has been reduced (in the redox chemistry sense) and removed during soil formation or that saturation with stagnant water has preserved a reduced state. If iron has been removed, the soil is the color of uncoated sand and silt particles. If iron is present in a reduced state, the soil is the color of reduced iron (typically bluish-gray). Redox concentrations (spots of oxidized iron, formerly called mottles are often present.

Hydrous: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 100 percent or more; a soil that holds more water than “medial” or “ashy” soils.

Ion exchange capacity: The ability of soil materials such as clay or organic matter to retain ions (which may be plant nutrients) and to release those ions for uptake by roots.

Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) or higher and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.

Isomesic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 47 degrees F (8 degrees C) or higher but lower than 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.

Isothermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) or higher but lower than 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.

Kipuka: An area of land surrounded by younger (more recent) lava. Soils and plant communities within a kipuka are older than, and often quite different from, those on the surrounding surfaces.

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): A geographic area defined by NRCS that is characterized by a particular pattern of soils, climate, water resources, and land uses. The island of Hawaii contains nine MLRAs, some of which also occur on other islands in the state.

Makai: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the sea.”

Mauka: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the mountain” or “inland.”

Medial: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent; a soil that holds an amount of water intermediate to “hydrous” or “ashy” soils.

Mollisols: Soils with relatively thick, dark surface horizons, high cation-exchange capacity, high calcium content, that do not become hard or very hard when dry. Mollisols are conducive to plant growth. They characteristically form under grass in climates that are seasonally dry, but can form under forests.

Naturalized plant community: A community dominated by adapted, introduced species. It is a relatively stable community resulting from secondary succession after disturbance. Most grasslands in Hawaii are in this category.

Oxisols: Soils characteristic of humid, tropical or subtropical regions that formed on land surfaces that have been stable for a long time. In Hawaii, they typically occur on islands or parts of islands that have been volcanically inactive for a long time. Oxisols are highly weathered, consist largely of quartz, kaolin clays, and aluminum oxides, and have low ion exchange capacity and loamy or clayey texture.

Pahoehoe lava: A type of basaltic lava with a smooth, billowy, or rope-like surface and vesicular interior.

Parent material: Unconsolidated and chemically weathered material from which a soil is developed.

Perudic soil moisture regime: A very wet regime found where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration in all months of normal years. On the island of Hawaii, this regime is found on top of Kohala and on parts of the windward side of Mauna Kea.

pH: The numerical expression of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a soil sample. A pH of 7 is neutral; a pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is basic.

Phosphorus adsorption: The ability of soil materials to tightly retain phosphorous ions, which are a plant nutrient. Some volcanic ash soils retain phosphorus so strongly that it is partly unavailable to plants.

Psamments: Sandy soils that have low water-holding capacity, are susceptible to wind erosion, and typically have ground water deeper than 20 inches (50 centimeters).

Reference community phase: The phase exhibiting the characteristics of the reference state and containing the full complement of plant species that historically occupied the site. It is the community phase used to classify an ecological site.

Reference state: A state that describes the ecological potential and natural or historical range of variability of an ecological site.

Residuum: Unconsolidated mineral material that has chemically and physically weathered from rock and has not moved from its place of origin.

Restoration pathway: A term describing the environmental conditions and practices that are required to recover a state that has undergone a transition.

Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR): A measure of the amount of dissolved sodium relative to calcium and magnesium in the soil water. SAR values higher than 13 create soil conditions unfavorable to most plants.

Soil moisture regime: A term referring to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa (the crop wilting point) in the soil or in specific horizons during periods of the year.

Soil temperature regime: A defined class based on mean annual soil temperature and on differences between summer and winter temperatures at a specified depth.

Soil reaction: Numerical expression in pH units of the relative acidity or alkalinity or a soil.

Spodosols: Soils with a spodic B horizon that has an accumulation of black or reddish amorphous materials that have a high pH-dependent ion exchange capacity, coarse texture, and few base cations. Above the spodic horizon there often is a light-colored albic horizon that was the source of the amorphous materials in the spodic horizon.

State: One or more community phases and their soil properties that interact with the abiotic and biotic environment to produce persistent functional and structural attributes associated with a characteristic range of variability.

State-and-transition model: A method used to display information about relationships between vegetation, soil, animals, hydrology, disturbances, and management actions on an ecological site.

Torric soil moisture regime: See Aridic soil moisture regime.

Transition: A term describing the biotic or abiotic variables or events that contribute to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states.

Udic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years, and so provides ample moisture for plants. In Hawaii it is associated with forests in which hapuu (tree ferns) are usually moderately to highly abundant.

Ultisols: Soils that have been intensively leached and weathered. They have a B horizon that has accumulated clay that has translocated there from higher horizons. They have moderate to low cation exchange capacity and low base saturation. The highest base saturation normally is in the few centimeters directly beneath the surface due to cycling of bases by plants.

Ustic soil moisture regime: A regime in which moisture is limited but present at a time when conditions are suitable for plant growth. In Hawaii it usually is associated with dry forests and subalpine shrublands.

Other References

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Allen, M.S., 2014. Marquesan colonization chronologies and post-colonization interaction: implications for Hawaiian origins and the ‘Marquesan Homeland’ hypothesis. Journal of Pacific Archaeology, 5(2), pp.1-17.

Armstrong RW. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Athens JS. Ch. 12 Hawaiian Native Lowland Vegetation in Prehistory in Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands – Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change. Kirch, PV and TL Hunt, eds. 1997. Yale U. Press, New Haven.

Burney DA, HF James, LP Burney, SL Olson, W Kikuchi, WL Wagner, M Burney, D McCloskey, D Kikuchi, FV Grady, R Gage II, and R Nishek. 2001. Fossil evidence for a diverse biota from Kauai and tis transformation since human arrival. Ecological Monographs 71:615-641.

Christensen CC. 1983. Report 17: Analysis of land snails. In: Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT. and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.

Clark JT. 1983. Report 3: The Waimea-Kawaihae Region: Historical Background. In: Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.

Clark JT. 1983. Report 7: Archaeological investigations in Section 4. In: Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.

Clark JT. 1983. Report 8: Archaeological investigations of agricultural sites in the Waimea area. In: Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.

Craighill ES and EG Handy. 1991. Native Planters in Old Hawaii – Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI

Cuddihy LW and CP Stone. 1990. Alteration of Native Hawaiian Vegetation: Effects of Humans, Their Activities and Introductions. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Study Unit.

Deenik J and AT McClellan. 2007. Soils of Hawaii. Soil and Crop Management, Sept. 2007, SCM-20. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. University of Hawaii at Manoa. Available online at: https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/SCM-20.pdf

Dixon JB and Schulze DG, eds. 2002. Soil Mineralogy with Environmental Applications. Volume 7. Soil Science Society of America. Available online at: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.2136/sssabookser7

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Gil CR. 2016-2017. Ananas comosus. Colegio Bolivar Agricultural Science. Available online at: https://www.colegiobolivar.edu.co/garden/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Crosas-Ananas-comosus-2017.pdf

Hazlett RW and DW Hyndman. 1996. Roadside Geology of Hawaii. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula MT.

Henke LA. 1929. A Survey of Livestock in Hawaii. Research Publication No. 5. University of Hawaii, Honolulu.

Horrocks M. 2009. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and banana (Musa sp.) microfossils in deposits from the Kona Field System, Island of Hawaii. Journal of Archaeological Science, May 2009.

Imada, C. 2012. Hawaiian Native and Naturalized Vascular Plants Checklist (December 2012 update). Bishop Museum Technical Report 60. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

Jacobi JD. 1989. Vegetation Maps of the Upland Plant Communities on the Islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai. Technical Report 68. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa and National Park Service.

Juvik JO and D Nullet. 1993. Relationships between rainfall, cloud-water interception, and canopy throughfall in a Hawaiian montane forest. IN: Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Proc. Int. Sym., San Juan, PR. Hamilton LS, JO Juvik, and FN Scatena, eds. East-West Center.

Kirch PV. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians in the Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Science 36(1):1-14.

Kirch PV. 1983. Introduction. In: Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.

Kirch PV. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

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Kirch, P.V., 2011. When did the Polynesians settle Hawaii? A review of 150 years of scholarly inquiry and a tentative answer. Hawaiian Archaeology, 12(2011), pp.3-26.

Leopold LB. 1949. The interaction of trade wind and sea breeze, Hawaii. Journal of Meteorology 6: 312-320.

Little EL Jr. and RG Skolmen. 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and Introduced). US Department of Agriculture-US Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 679. (out of print). Available at www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/misc/ah679.pdf

Maly K and O Maly. 2004. He Moolelo Aina: A Cultural Study of the Puu O Umi Natural Area Reserve and Kohala-Hamakua Mountain Lands, Districts of Kohala and Hamakua, Island of Hawaii. Kumu Pono Associates, Hilo HI.

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Mubyana T. 1997/98. Effects of continuous sugarcane and pineapple cropping on organic matter and soil microbial biomass. Journal of African Research and Development 27&28:258-269.

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Palmer DD. 2003. Hawaii’s Ferns and Fern Allies. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

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Contributors

Joseph May
Loretta J. Metz
David Clausnitzer
John Proctor
Carolyn Wong
Mathew Cocking
Amy Koch
Kendra Moseley
Jennifer Higashino
Mike Kolman

Approval

Kendra Moseley, 4/17/2025

Acknowledgments

Assistance, advice, review, and/or insights: Elena Dosamantes, NRCS John Colon, NRCS David Duvauchelle, NRCS Richard Ogoshi, NRCS Kip Dunbar, Dunbar Ranch Butch Hasse, Director Molokai Land Trust, Hanohano Naehu, Fish pond guardian at Keawanui Brian Carvillio, Mahi Pono Randy Bartlett, Puu Kukui Watershed Preserve Alison Cohan, The Nature Conservancy Michael Constantinides, NRCS-PIA Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch Diana Crow, Ulupalakua Ranch Lance DeSilva, Hawaii DLNR Kerri Fay, Waikamoi Preserve, The Nature Conservancy Alex Franco, Kaupo Ranch Ranae Ganske-Cerizo, NRCS Carl Hashimoto, NRCS Bob Hobdy, consultant, Maui Wallace Jennings, NRCS Mel Johansen, The Nature Conservancy Jordan Jokiel, Haleakala Ranch David Leonard, volunteer Penny Levin Reese Libby, GIS - NRCS Hannah Lutgen, Maui SWCD Joseph May, NRCS Scott Meidel, Haleakala Ranch Anna Palomino, Hoolawa Farms Inc. Jon Price, USGS Tamara Sherrill, USFWS, Maui Nui Botanical Garden Amber Starr, Hana Ranch Kahana Stone, NRCS Mark Vaught, Water Resources, Alexander & Baldwin Jacqueline Vega, NRCS Rich von Wellsheim, Whispering Bamboos, Kipahulu

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	Loretta J. Metz
Contact for lead author
Date	04/29/2012
Approved by
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
None.
Presence of water flow patterns:
None.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Total amount of bare ground is less than 5% in a well-managed, functioning pasture system.
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Regardless of size, litter is not expected to move/travel across this site.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Average values are 4-5.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Light yellowish brown to moderately dark brown A-horizon depending on the amount of organic matter incorporated in the horizon. Note that a true A-horizon may not be present due to past intensive cropping procedures used on sugarcane and pineapple.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Grasses and forbs provide the best opportunity for water infiltration and reduced runoff. As the plant community shifts to shrubs or trees, the ability of the site to absorb water and reduce runoff is significantly compromised.
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
May be a compaction layer deeper in the soil profile due to past cropping practices. If present, the compaction layer will typically be located between 6 to 12 inches below the ground surface.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Warm season perennial bunchgrasses >>

Sub-dominant:
Warm season perennial rhizomatous grasses > Warm season perennial leguminous forbs >>

Other:
Other warm season perennial forbs (non-leguminous).

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Plant mortality and decadence occur seasonally, sometimes several times throughout the year depending on precipitation and temperature. Mortality is generally not common; decadence is rather common, particularly within the warm season perennial grasses.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Over 20,000 pounds per acre is produced annually on this site (total production, not just forage production).
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Refer to the plant list on the FSGD, G158XY401HI. Where the annual production amounts are shown as "zero" on the plant/production list, that represents the invasive species typical to the site.
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
Very high; multiple times per year depending on moisture and temperature received on the site.

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Ecological site VX158X01X401

Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland Koa haole/guineagrass/glycine (Leucaena leucocephala/Urochloa maxima/Neonotonia wightii)

Last updated: 4/17/2025 Accessed: 09/22/2026

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General information

Figure 1. Mapped extent

MLRA notes

Classification relationships

Ecological site concept

Associated sites

Similar sites

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Legacy ID

Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Isohyperthermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland
Koa haole/guineagrass/glycine
(Leucaena leucocephala/Urochloa maxima/Neonotonia wightii)

Last updated: 4/17/2025
Accessed: 09/22/2026