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Ecological site VX157X01X008
Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland
Koa haole/guineagrass - buffelgrass/glycine
(Leucaena leucocephala/Urochloa maxima - Cenchrus ciliaris/Neonotonia wightii)
Last updated: 5/08/2025
Accessed: 09/19/2026
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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 157X–Arid and Semiarid Low Mountain Slopes
This MLRA occurs in the State of Hawaii on the islands of Hawaii and Maui. It consists primarily of moderately dissected, gently sloping to steep, leeward mountain slopes. Elevation ranges from sea level to about 6000 feet (0 to 1830 meters). Underlying geology is largely basaltic aa, which is covered by volcanic ash. Climate is dry tropical. Average annual precipitation typically ranges from 10 to 35 inches (255 to 890 millimeters), rising to 45 inches (1145 millimeters) on higher slopes, and mostly occurs from October through May. Much of the rainfall occurs in kona storms during winter. Average annual temperatures range from 55 to 76 degrees F (13 to 24 degrees C), with very little seasonal variation. Soils are mostly Andisols, Mollisols, and Aridisols with isohyperthermic or isothermic soil temperature regimes and ustic or aridic soil moisture regimes. Native vegetation is now rare and consists of species characteristic of dry habitats, such as ilima, wiliwili, and aiea. Common naturalized plant species include grasses such as buffelgrass and kikuyugrass and trees such as kiawe are common.
Classification relationships
This ecological site occurs within Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 157 - Arid and Semiarid Low Mountain Slopes.
Ecological site concept
This ecological site is naturalized grassland, with some remnant native vegetation, on the western and southern slopes of Haleakala on the island of Maui. Most of the area is owned by the State of Hawaii and Division of Hawaiian Homelands, but parts are on large, private ranches and other private holdings. Examples of this ecological site can be seen from Route 31/37 Piilani Highway.
The central concept of the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland is of well drained, deep Andisols or shallow Mollisols formed in deposits of volcanic ash deposited over aa lava flows. Annual air temperatures and rainfall are associated with warm (isothermic), seasonally dry (ustic) soil conditions. High rock contents (very stony, extremely stony) in the soils reduce their plant available water holding capacity in usually coarse-textured surface horizons but, by reducing soil content per unit volume, allow water to infiltrate deep into the soil for storage in finer-textured subsurface horizons. Elevations range from about 1000 feet (310 meters) to 2600 feet (800 meters); extreme elevations range as low as 400 feet (125 meters) to as high as 3500 feet (1077 meters) where parts of this ecological site transition to other ecological sites. Because very little of the original native vegetation remains, the reference state of this ecological site consists of naturalized grassland vegetation. The dominant grass species is guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), although buffelgrass (Pennisetum ciliare) commonly occurs at the lower elevations of the ecological site.Associated sites
VX157X01X003 Rocky Volcanic Ash Savanna Kiawe/buffelgrass (Prosopis pallida/Pennisetum ciliare)
The Rocky Volcanic Ash Savanna is on the islands of Hawaii and Maui. It has a warmer soil temperature regime (isohyperthermic), drier soil moisture regime (mostly ustic), lower average annual rainfall (7 to 20 versus 20 to 40 inches), lower elevation range (0 to about 2200 versus 1000 to 2600 feet), supports native savanna rather than dry forest, and has a different dominant forage grass species (buffelgrass versus guineagrass) compared to the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland. The soils in the Rocky Volcanic Ash Savanna are primarily Aridisols and Andisols compared to Andisols and Mollisols in the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland.
VX158X01X002 Isohyperthermic Torric Naturalized Grassland Kiawe/buffelgrass (Prosopis pallida/Pennisetum ciliare)
The Isohyperthermic Torric Naturalized Grassland is on the islands of Maui, Molokai, Lanai, and Kauai. It has a warmer soil temperature regime (isohyperthermic versus isothermic), drier soil moisture regime (torric versus ustic), lesser average annual rainfall (10 to 40 versus 20 to 40 inches), a lower elevation range (0 to 1800 versus 1000 to 2600 feet), and a different dominant forage grass species (buffelgrass versus guineagrass) compared to the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland. The soils in the Isohyperthermic Torric Naturalized Grassland are older and more weathered (mostly Mollisols and Oxisols) than the Andisols and Mollisols in the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland.
VX158X01X004 Rocky Isohyperthermic Torric Naturalized Grassland Kiawe/uhaloa/buffelgrass (Prosopis pallida/Waltheria indica/Pennisetum ciliare)
The Rocky Isohyperthermic Torric Naturalized Grassland occurs on Maui, Molokai, and Kauai. It adjoins parts of the low elevation boundary of the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland on Maui. The Rocky Isohyperthermic Naturalized Grassland has a warmer soil temperature regime (isohyperthermic versus isothermic), a drier soil moisture regime (torric versus ustic), lesser average annual rainfall (10 to 20 versus 20 to 40 inches), lower elevation range (0 to 1800 versus 1000 to 2600 feet), supports native savanna and shrubland rather than dry forest, and has a different dominant forage grass species (buffelgrass versus guineagrass) compared to the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland. Due to older substrates, soils in the Rocky Isohyperthermic Torric Naturalized Grassland are mostly Mollisols rather than the Andisols, Mollisols, or Histosols occuring in the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland.
VX160X01X007 Isothermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland (Kikuyugrass)
The Isothermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland occurs only on Maui. It adjoins the high elevation boundary of the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland. The Isothermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland has the same soil temperature regime (isothermic), same soil moisture regime (ustic), greater average annual rainfall (20 to 55 versus 20 to 40 inches), similar elevation range, similar but more diverse native dry forest, and a different dominant forage grass species (kikuyugrass versus guineagrass) compared to the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland. Soils are nearly all Andisols rather than Andisols, Mollisols, and Histosols occuring in the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland.
Similar sites
VX166X01X002 Isothermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland
The Isothermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland occurs on Molokai and Lanai. It has the same soil temperature regime (isothermic), same soil moisture regime (ustic), similar average annual rainfall, similar elevation range, similar native dry forest, and same dominant forage grass species compared to the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland. Soils in the Isothermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland are all nonrocky Mollisols rather than the rocky Andisols, Mollisols, and Histosols occurring in the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland.
VX165X01X001 Isothermic Ustic Naturalized Grassland
The Naturalized Grassland 30 to 60 Inch Precipitation Zone occurs on West Maui, Molokai, Lanai, Oahu, and Kauai. It has the same soil temperature regime (isothermic), same soil moisture regime (ustic), greater average annual rainfall (30 to 60 versus 20 to 40 inches), higher elevation range (500 to 3400 feet versus 1000 to 2600 feet), similar but more diverse native dry forest, and a different dominant forage grass species (kikuyugrass versus guineagrass) compared to the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland. Most of the soils are older and more weathered (mostly Ultisols and Oxisols) rather than the Andisols, Mollisols, and Histosols occuring in the Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland.
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree (1) Leucaena leucocephala
Shrub Not specified
Herbaceous (1) Urochloa maxima
(2) Neonotonia wightiiLegacy ID
R157XY008HI
Physiographic features
This ecological site occurs on volcanic ash deposited over lava flows on sloping mountainsides of shield volcanoes. Lava flows are aa (loose, cobbly); a very small area is underlain by volcanic cinders.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) Shield volcano > Mountain slope
Runoff class Very low to medium Flooding frequency None Ponding frequency None Elevation 1000 – 2600 ft Slope 3 – 40 % Water table depth 60 – 80 in Aspect W, S Table 3. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)
Runoff class Not specified Flooding frequency Not specified Ponding frequency Not specified Elevation 1000 – 3500 ft Slope 0 % Water table depth 0 in Climatic features
(Unless otherwise cited, the information in this section is derived from Western Regional Climate Center, cited 2020).
Summary for this ecological site
Average annual precipitation in this ecological site ranges from 20 to 40 inches (500 to 1000 mm). Extremes of average annual precipitation may range as low as 15 inches (375 mm). Most of the precipitation occurs from October through April. Average annual temperatures range from 69 to 73 degrees F (20 to 23 degrees C). Conditions typically are dry. Rainfall occurs as occasional light trade wind showers that drift over from the windward side of the island and as heavier rainfall during major winter storms. Major storms are important for soil moisture recharge, and the number of major storms is highly variable; drought can result from a winter with few or no storms. Due to the latitude, daylength varies little during the year, resulting in only about a 50 percent variation in solar energy input between June maximum to December minimum; this variation is somewhat less than that found in the continental United States. Conditions are generally clear; except at the highest extremes of this ecological site, frequent cloudiness higher on the mountain slopes usually does not shade this area due to the angle of the sun.
General principles
Air temperature in the Hawaiian Islands is buffered by the surrounding ocean so that the range in temperature through the year is narrow. This creates “iso-“ soil temperature regimes in which mean summer and winter temperatures differ by less than 6 degrees C (11 degrees F).
The islands lie within the trade wind zone. Significant amounts of moisture are picked up from the ocean by trade winds up to an altitude of more than about 6000 feet (1850 meters). As the trade winds from the northeast are forced up the mountains of the islands their moisture condenses, creating rain on the windward slopes; leeward sides of the island receive less of this moisture, depending on the height of the mountains.
Hawaiian indigenous understanding recognized two seasons: Kau or Kauwela (dry season) when the sun was directly overhead, days are long and warm and tradewinds are stronger and more consistent; Kau started on the first new moon in May when the Pleiades set at sunrise (Handy, 1991). During Ho’oilo (wet season) the sun is declined toward the south, days are shorter, temperatures cooler and winds more variable and generally started with the first new moon in November. Ho’oilo is also the season when extensive low-pressure systems often approach the islands from the west, producing heavy rainstorms that primarily affect the leeward sides, but can envelope the entire island. (Malo, 1903, Handy 1991, Sanderson, 1993). These seasons are mostly consistent with modern observations today. These phenomena of pressure systems and seasonal differences interact with the islands’ topography which together creates the various climate zones and patterns observed in the islands. One such general pattern can be seen in the differences in rainfall amounts between winter and summer; in low elevation dry areas the differences are greater whereas wetter areas exhibit less seasonal variation in rainfall.
The zones of highest rainfall on the windward flanks of Haleakala, on the eastern portion of Maui, lie at elevations of 2000 to 4000 feet (615 to 1230 meters). In the West Maui mountains, which are lower than 6000 feet (1850 meters), the highest rainfall is along or near the summits. Fluctuating between approximately 5000 and 7000 feet (1540 to 2150 meters) elevation on Haleakala is a temperature inversion at the boundary between moist air and higher, drier air; this inversion occurs 50 to 70 percent of the time. Distinct vegetation changes occur within a short distance at the inversion layer, with lush forest vegetation below the layer and dry savanna, shrubland, grasslands, and sparsely vegetated areas above it. In winter, major storms may deposit snow on the upper slopes of Haleakala, but snow accumulations on the ground typically do not last long.
Low-elevation (to about 2000 feet or 615 meters) areas on the leeward sides of Maui are very warm, sunny, and dry. The central valley, between Haleakala and West Maui, is very warm and dry; this valley is also windy due to trade winds passing around the northwest corner of Haleakala.
On the windward sides of the islands, cool, moist air at higher elevations descends toward the ocean where it meets the trade winds; this process brings rainfall, often at night, to lower elevation areas.
Sea-to-land naulu winds regularly flow up the western and southern slopes of Haleakala, forming clouds on these faces of the mountain between about 3000 to 6000 feet (925 to 1850 meters). These clouds can form a shadow at lower elevations and produce fog drip at higher elevations where the clouds contact the mountain (Leopold 1949; Schroeder 1981). Fog drip contributes a significant amount of water to vegetation and soil in addition to rainfall, and the proportion of annual moisture provided by fog drip is higher in areas with relatively low rainfall (Juvik and Nullet 1993).Table 4 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 370 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) 370 days Precipitation total (characteristic range) 20-40 in ">Influencing water features
There are some ephemeral streams that have formed gulches in this ecological site. These can flow strongly during and after heavy rainstorms. The gulches are partly vegetated with species typical of the rest of the ecological site.
Soil features
All the soils in this ecological site formed from fine materials deposited over and in the interstices of basaltic aa lava. The lava rock fragments that constitute aa range in size from gravel (up to 3 inches, or 2 mm to 76 mm) to stones (10 to 25 inches, or 250 mm to 600 mm), but are primarily gravel and cobbles (76 mm to 250 mm, or 3 to 10 inches). Below the layer of rock fragments is massive lava called “bluerock.” The fine materials are volcanic ash in Kamaole and Puu Pa soils and highly decomposed organic material in Kaimu soils. Interstices between stones are filled with fine soil material near the surface. The deepest horizon typically consists of rocks with empty voids between them.
Soil temperature regimes are isothermic (warm) or, in some cases, isohyperthermic (very warm). Soil moisture regimes are ustic (in most years, dry for more than 90 cumulative days but less than 180 days) or, in some cases, drier than ustic, being intergrades between ustic and aridic. All the soils are either very stony or extremely stony. This reduces the amount of soil material per unit of volume, which reduces overall water holding capacity of the soil. However, given the moderate to rapid permeability of all the soils, it enables water to percolate to deeper horizons, which have finer textures and good water holding capacity in all the soils in this ecological site except Puu Pa. Surface soil pH ranges from 5.8 to 6.2; extreme pH in subsurface soils within 30 inches (75 centimeters) of the surface ranges from 7.2 to 7.4.
PUU PA soils are mapped on Maui over an elevation range of 400 to 6300 feet (125 to 1940 meters). This exceeds the concept of the ecological site due to the wide temperature and moisture range this map unit encompasses; updated soil mapping is needed. For this ecological site, Puu Pa soils are included up to elevations of about 2600 feet (600 to 800 meters).
Puu Pa soils are classified today as Humic Haplustands. They are deep (40 to 60 inches or 100 to 150 centimeters) and well drained. They originally formed in volcanic ash (see next paragraph). They have relatively thick, dark surface horizons containing abundant organic matter, and high (greater than 50 percent) base saturation. Having formed on aa lava, Puu Pa soils are medial-skeletal, meaning they have a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent (medial) and have 35 percent or more, by volume, rock fragments (skeletal) in much of their profile.
The volcanic ash soils of the Island of Maui are derived mostly from basaltic ash that varies relatively little in chemical composition (Hazlett and Hyndman 1996; Vitousek 2004)). Most of these volcanic ash soils are classified today as Andisols, which have these general management characteristics: ion exchange capacity that varies with pH, but mostly retaining anions such as nitrate; high phosphorus adsorption, which restricts phosphorus availability to plants; excellent physical properties (low bulk density, good friability, weak stickiness, stable soil aggregates) for cultivation, seedling emergence, and plant root growth; resistance to compaction and an ability to recover from compaction following repeated cycles of wetting and drying; and high capacity to hold water that is available to plants. These characteristics are due to the properties of the parent material, the clay-size noncrystalline materials formed by weathering, and the soil organic matter accumulated during soil formation (Shoji et al. 1993).
Soils of the KAMAOLE series are classified as Aridic Haplustolls. Although they originally formed in volcanic ash deposited in aa, they are old and weathered enough to have developed beyond Andisols to the Mollisols soil order. They are shallow (10 to 20 inches or 25 to 50 centimeters) and well drained. They have an ustic soil moisture regime but are even drier, intergrading to an aridic soil moisture regime. They have relatively thick, dark surface horizons containing abundant organic matter, do not become hard when dry, and have high (greater than 50 percent) base saturation. Having formed on aa lava, Kamaole soils are fragmental, meaning that the fine earth component of the soil is less than 10 percent of the total volume; rock fragments occupy the rest of the volume.
Many of the soils in very warm (mostly isohyperthermic, but sometimes isothermic), seasonally dry (ustic) parts of Maui are Mollisols or have mollic properties. Some of their unique properties are a combination of a relatively thick, dark surface horizon (mollic epipedon) that does not become hard when dry, a dominance of calcium among the extractable cations, and a dominance of crystalline clay minerals of moderate or high cation-exchange capacity. Although Mollisols usually form under grass in seasonally dry climates, they can form under forest vegetation. The original native vegetation here was dry forest or savanna.
The information about KAIMU series in this narrative is based mostly on the 1972 Soil Survey. Kaimu soils have been mapped more recently and extensively on the Island of Hawaii, and this updated information is inconsistent with the 1972 survey. The following information is from the 1972 survey.
Kaimu soils are classified within the Histosols soil order. They formed in organic material consisting of highly decomposed leaves, twigs, and wood with small amounts of basic volcanic ash, cinders, and weathered lava; this is called highly decomposed parent material (hdpm). They are somewhat excessively drained and shallow. Soil material fills the voids between the aa rocks to a depth of about 8 inches (20 centimeters); from this depth to bluerock (at about 20 inches or 50 centimeters), the voids are not completely filled with soil material.
Kaimu soils formed in aa lava. The lava rock fragments that constitute aa range in size from gravel (up to 3 inches or 2 to 76 millimeters) to stones (10 to 25 inches or 250 to 600 millimeters) but are primarily gravel and cobbles (3 to 10 inches or 76 to 250 millimeters). Below the layer of rock fragments is massive lava called “bluerock.” Despite their unusual characteristics, soils such as these can support woodlands or forests with small to large stature trees depending on precipitation amounts. To observe the natural state of these soils, one must carefully disassemble the lava rock fragments and soil so as not to allow the soil materials to fall into the voids below.
Kaimu soils are classified as “euic.” This is a “Reaction Class” for Histosols that is determined by having pH >4.5 in 0.01 M CaCl2 in one or more layers in the control section. Since organic soils contain very little or no aluminum, which is the primary negative factor for plant growth in strongly to extremely acid soils, most plants grow well in organic soils at much lower pH (between 4.5 and 5.5) than in mineral soils. Euic Histosols have relatively high contents of plant nutrients retained against leaching by the variable-charge cation exchange that develops in the pH range (6.2 surface and 7.2 subsurface) of Kaimu soils.
Kaimu soils are classified as having an isohyperthermic (very warm) soil temperature regime. Because their elevation range on Maui is 1500 to 3000 feet (460 to 925 meters) and higher, they probably range from isohyperthermic to isothermic.
Adjoining the soils described above are lands mapped as MISCELLANEOUS AREAS. By definition, they have little or no soil and support sparse or no vegetation. Miscellaneous Areas are extensive in the Five Islands Soil Survey upon which this ecological site is based, and most were mapped by low-intensity reconnaissance methods that provide less-detailed information than that presented for soil series and their phases. In many cases, however, Miscellaneous Areas in Maui, Molokai, Lanai, Oahu, and Kauai are moderately- to well-vegetated and/or contain plant and animal species of interest to conservationists. They are either extremely difficult to access or were not considered important enough at the time of this survey to warrant full expenditure of resources. They are described in the following paragraphs.
ROCK LAND (rRK) occurs on parent materials of basalt or andesite. Rock cover on the surface ranges from 25 to 90 percent; soils are very shallow (less than 10 inches or 25 centimeters). Near this ecological site, it occurs mostly in gulches created by ephemeral streams. Vegetation is generally sparse, but in some spots, vegetation is dense due to localized accumulations of soil and extra moisture from seasonal stream flows. Common plant species are kiawe (Prosopis pallida), klu (Vachellia farnesiana), pili grass (Heteropogon contortus), uhaloa (Waltheria indica), and koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala).
ROCK OUTCROP (rRO) has exposed bedrock of basalt or andesite covering more than 90 percent of the surface. Near this ecological site, it occurs mostly in gulches created by ephemeral streams. Vegetation is mostly sparse, but some gulch bottoms support more vegetation due to localized accumulations of soil and extra moisture from seasonal stream flows.
VERY STONY LAND (rVS) on Maui occurs mostly in parent materials of aa lava with volcanic ash. Fifty to 90 percent of the surface is covered with stones and boulders. Some occurrences of Very Stony Land adjoining this ecological site support vegetation as dense as, or denser than, some soil series. The array of plant species is probably similar to that found on the soil series.Table 5. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Volcanic ash – aa lava
(2) Organic material – aa lava
Surface texture (1) Very stony silt loam
(2) Extremely stony silt loam
(3) Extremely stony
(4) Very stony, medial silt loam
Drainage class Well drained to somewhat excessively drained Permeability class Moderate to rapid Depth to restrictive layer 40 – 80 in Soil depth 20 – 50 in Surface fragment cover <=3" Not specified Surface fragment cover >3" 1.3 – 8.5 % Available water capacity
(20-50in)1.2 – 1.7 in Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(20-50in)5.8 – 6.2 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(20-50in)5 – 35 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(20-50in)35 – 90 % Ecological dynamics
The information in this ecological site description (ESD), including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed using archaeological and historical data, professional experience, and scientific studies. The information is representative of a complex set of plant communities. Not all scenarios or plants are included. Key indicator plants, animals, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.
Natural Disturbances
There have been no lava flows or heavy volcanic ash flows on this ecological site that are recent enough to have affected the current vegetation. Heavy rainfall can cause soil erosion and strong flows in gulches. Major storm events have also been known to trigger significant mud slides and flooding events. (Stearns 1942). Large earthquakes, such as the quake in 1938 may also cause geomorphically significant change to landscapes, although these are rare and impossible to predict. (Stearns 1942).
Wildfires prior to human settlement was probably infrequent. Lightning usually occurs in the wetter months and mostly at high elevations and moist windward slopes, and lava flows are intermittent and localized (Abrahamson 2013).
Human Disturbances
Human-related disturbances have been more important than natural disturbances in this ecological site since the arrival of Polynesians and, later, Europeans. This is reflected in the State and Transition Model Diagram.
The first humans are believed to have migrated to Hawaii between 1000 and 1260 AD (Allen, 2014, Wilmhurst, 2011). Subsequent migrations and population growth increased so that by 1600 AD at least 80% of all the lands in Hawaii below about 1500 feet (roughly 500meters) in elevation had been extensively altered by humans (Kirch 1982); some pollen core data suggest that up to 100% of lowlands may have been altered (Athens 1997). By the time of European contact late in the 18th century, the Polynesians had developed high population densities and placed large areas under intensive agriculture (Cuddihy and Stone 1990).
Prehistoric native lowland forest disturbance can be attributed to clearing for agriculture by hand or by fire, introduction of new plants, animals, possibly plant diseases, and wood harvesting. The introduced Pacific rat would have eaten bird eggs, invertebrates, and the seeds of native plants (Athens 1997).
After the arrival of Europeans, documentary evidence attests to increased human-caused wildfire ignitions, accelerated and extensive deforestation, erosion, siltation, and changes in local weather patterns (Kirch 1983) due to more intensive land use, modern tools, and introduction of more plant, animal, and microbe species. Introduced kiawe trees (Prosopis pallida) are widespread in this ecological site.
The Polynesians introduced dogs, Pacific rats, and small pigs to the islands. After European discovery, cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and larger European pigs were introduced in the final decades of the 18th century. These animals ranged free on the islands, becoming very numerous and destructive by the early decades of the 19th century. Additionally, packs of feral dogs had become established, as confirmed by reports of their depredations on sheep. By 1851, records reported severe overstocking of pastures, lack of fences, and large numbers of feral livestock (Henke 1929).
Through the 20th and into the 21st centuries, increases in human populations with attendant land development, as well as accelerated introduction of non-native mammals (including deer), birds, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, plants, and microorganisms, have brought about dramatic changes to wild ecosystems in Hawaii. Much of the original forest of this ecological site has been cleared and planted with introduced grasses for livestock grazing, and the remaining native plant communities have been highly disturbed. Some of the area had been under cultivation, later abandoned, and then converted to grazing land.
The original native vegetation was dry forest. Common species, based on the current environment and remnant occurrences, were lama (Diospyros sandwicensis), alahee (Psydrax odorata), ohe makai (Reynoldsia sandwicensis), wiliwili (Erythrina sandwicensis), naio (Myoporum sandwicense), koaia (Acacia koaia), aalii (Dodonaea viscosa), ilima (Sida fallax), ulei (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia), huehue (Cocculus orbiculatus), and native grasses. Rare, threatened, and endangered plant species still occur in some locations.
Since the loss of the native dry forests, most of this ecological site has been utilized by livestock. Originally, the animals were feral or semi-feral. Today, the area is fenced and managed primarily for cattle. Common naturalized trees are kiawe (Prosopis pallida) and koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala).State and transition model
Custom diagramStandard diagram
Figure 1. STM for Rocky Isothermic Naturalized Grassland (R157XY008HI)
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Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)
States 2 and 5 (additional transitions)
R1A - State 1 Reference can be restored to a plant community resembling State 3 Native Forest. Invasive plant species control would be applied to forage species and the many opportunistic plant species that would invade the site. Invasive plant species control would be a perpetual process to maintain the site. Firebreaks must be established and maintained, and suitable fencing must be erected and maintained to exclude domestic and feral ungulates. Extensive planting of native species would follow. T1A - State 1 Reference transitions to State 4 Shrub-Invaded Grassland in the absence of disturbance such as fire or herbivory by ungulates such that gradual invasion of weedy shrubs and small trees will occur. If the site contained abundant koa haole before abandonment, these small trees will overtop the guineagrass and greatly increase in abundance. To avoid this transition apply a planned grazing system/prescribed grazing and brush control. T1B - State 1 Reference will transition to State 6 Glycine-Invaded if ungulate herbivory is absent or too light to control glycine growth. To avoid this transition apply a grazing management plan/prescribed grazing and/or herbaceous weed control measures.. T2A - State 2 Invaded-Understory transitions to State 1 Reference when the native overstory is cleared by disturbance such as fire or by mechanical means. Once cleared it is likely that weed species released from the soil seed bank will require invasive plant species control measures. Seed or plant desired perennial grasses as needed. R2A - State 2 Invaded-Understory may be restored to a facsimile of State 3 Native Forest by removal of the introduced understory through application of Invasive plant species control and brush control measures. Reintroduction of native understory species is required. The site must be fenced securely to exclude ungulates, and a firebreak must be established and maintained. T2B - State 2 Invaded-Understory transitions to State 5 Exotic Tree-Invaded by growth of introduced tree species through and above the native canopy, resulting in competition for light, nutrients and space. Lack of reproduction, establishment and persistence leads to gradual loss of most native tree species. This transition may be avoided by applying Invasive plant species management measures. T3B - State 3 Native Forest transitions to State 1 Reference when native vegetation is cleared by disturbances such as fire or by mechanical means. Once cleared, seed or plant desirable perennial grass and forb species and apply invasive plant species management as needed. T3B - State 3 Native Forest transitions to State 2 Invaded-Understory through grazing, browsing, rooting, and trampling by domestic or feral ungulates (cows, sheep, deer, goats, and pigs). These activities destroy small native plant species and seedlings and saplings of large species. Regeneration of the native forest is prevented, leading to tree populations consisting almost entirely of mature plants. Lack of competition from native plants, introduction of weed seeds, and disturbance of the soil lead to an understory dominated by introduced plant species. Weeds can invade intact native forest even in the absence of ungulates and gradually bring about the transition. Invasive vines, shrubs, and small trees will grow under intact native canopies and begin to degrade the forest. Eventually, the fine fuels produced by introduced grasses can carry wildfires that destroy the native tree canopy. This transition may be avoided by building a fence to exclude domestic and feral ungulates and by applying continued invasive plant species management measures. T4A - State 4 Shrub-Invaded Grassland transitions to State 5 Exotic Tree-Invaded without disturbance such as fire or brush control. Fast-growing introduced tree species invade Shrub Invaded Grassland and quickly overtop shrubs. This transition can be avoided through application of brush management and invasive plant species control measures. R5A - State 5 Exotic Tree-Invaded may be restored to State 1 Reference with disturbance such as fire or land clearing by mechanical means. Soil disturbance by heavy machinery may induce germination of the weed seed bank and increase the potential for soil erosion. Invasive plant species control and brush management must then be applied multiple times to control new weed germination and resprouting. After clearing and invasive plant species management, the site would be planted to forage species. Ungulates would have to be excluded until forages are well established; prescribed grazing must then be applied. T5A - State 5 Exotic Tree-Invaded transitions to State 6 Glycine-Invaded where glycine (Neonotonia wightii) is present or on adjoining land and is not controlled, or ungulates are not present to consume glycine. This transition can be avoided by application of a planned grazing system/prescribed grazing and/or herbaceous weed control measures. R6A - State 6 Glycine-Invaded transitions to State 1 Reference with application of targeted herbivory by livestock or herbaceous weed control. Once glycine has been effectively controlled, desired grasses can be reintroduced as needed during periods when animals are on other paddocks. Transitions T4B and T5A to State 6 Glycine-Invaded has been used intentionally and successfully to smother weedy vegetation up to the size of christmasberry on Kapapala Ranch on the island of Hawaii (Gordon Cran, personal communication). The weedy site is fenced and ungulates are removed, allowing glycine to smother weeds completely. Goats are then allowed onto the site to consume remaining or opportunistic understory weeds; glycine stems become too woody for the goats to eat. After about eight years, the dead trees collapse to the ground. At this point, grazing animals are allowed back on the site to consume glycine. Desired forage grasses can be replanted during periods when animals are on other paddocks. State 1 submodel, plant communities
P1.1A - Community phase 1.1 converts to phase 1.2 by fire that reduces competitiveness of guineagrass and allows invasion of weeds, particularly undesirable grasses. Continuous herbivory by domestic or feral ungulates without adequate rest for preferred forages will have the same result. This conversion by either factor can be avoided if timely application of deferred and/or prescribed grazing or removal or exclusion of feral ungulates is carried out to regulate guineagrass stature and to allow recovery of desirable species before weeds become dominant. P1.2A - Community phase 1.2 can be converted to phase 1.1 by removing undesirable species and favoring and/or reestablishing desirable pasture species. If adequate stands of guineagrass remain, prescribed grazing may eventually bring about the conversion. Pitted beardgrass and Natal red top have some value as forage. However, barbwire grass, Colombian bluestem, and broomsedge beardgrass are very unpalatable to livestock and therefore difficult to control by grazing. If pasture condition is very poor, weed control followed by reestablishment of guineagrass will be necessary. State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 5 submodel, plant communities
State 6 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference State
Figure 2. Reference State 1.1. Guineagrass/ with minor amounts of koa haole and glycine. Kamaole extremely stony silt loam, 3 to 15 percent slopes map unit, elevation 1940 feet, annual rainfall 25 inches. John Proctor, 3/17/21.
This state consists of two community phases. It is naturalized grassland with introduced grasses, forbs, and trees. Scattered, large trees are often present. Because examples of native dry forest are rare or nonexistent, this naturalized state is used as the Reference State.
Community 1.1
Koa haole (white leadtree)/guineagrass/glycine Leucaena leucocephala/Urochloa maxima/Neonotonia wightiiGuineagrass (Urochloa maxima), koa haole or white leadtree (Leucaena leucocephala), and glycine (Neonotonia wightii) are the dominant species as well as the preferred forage species. Kiawe (Prosopis pallida) and christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius) may occur. Pods of the leguminous kiawe tree are eaten by cattle.
With continuous heavy herbivory, preferred forage grasses decrease, as will edible small trees, vines, and shrubs. Less preferred grass, forb, and shrub species increase under such circumstances. With severe deterioration, shrubby species increase to eventually dominate the vegetation.
Resilience management. With continuous heavy herbivory, preferred forage grasses decrease, as will edible small trees, vines, and shrubs. Less preferred grass, forb, and shrub species increase under such circumstances. With severe deterioration, shrubby species increase to eventually dominate the vegetation.
Dominant plant species
-
white leadtree (Leucaena leucocephala), tree
-
guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), grass
-
perennial soybean (Neonotonia wightii), other herbaceous
Community 1.2
Molassesgrass – guineagrass/lantana Melinis minutiflora – Urochloa maxima/Lantana camaraKiawe (Prosopis pallida) and christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius) are more common than in phase 1.2. Guineagrass abundance has been reduced. Primary increaser grass species that come to dominate this community under heavy herbivory include molassesgrass (Melinis minutiflora), pitted beardgrass (Bothriochloa pertusa), Natal redtop (Melinis repens), barbwiregrass (Cymbopogon refractus), feather fingergrass (Chloris virgata), Rhodesgrass (Chloris gayana), wiregrass or Indian goosegrass (Eleusine indica), rat-tail grass (Sporobolus africanus syn. Sporobolus indicus var. capensis), crabgrass (Digitaria spp.), Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), Colombian bluestem (Schizachyrium condensatum), and broomsedge beardgrass (Andropogon virginicus). Unpalatable, increaser forbs include sensitive partridge pea (Chamaecrista nictitans), sensitive plant or shameplant (Mimosa pudica), rattlepod (Crotalaria mucronata), red pualele or lilac tasselflower (Emilia sonchifolia), common sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus), lion’s ear mint (Leonotis nepetifolia), and spiny amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus). Shrubby species include lantana (Lantana camara), apple of Sodom (Solanum linnaeaum), false mallow (Malvastrum coromandelianum), cocklebur (Xanthium saccharatum), Sacramento bur (Triumfetta semitriloba), balloon plant (Asclepias physocarpa), christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius), hairy mallow (Abutilon grandifolia), and castor bean (Ricinus communis).
Dominant plant species
-
lantana (Lantana camara), shrub
-
molassesgrass (Melinis minutiflora), grass
-
guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), grass
Pathway P1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2Community phase 1.1 converts to phase 1.2 by fire that reduces competitiveness of guineagrass and allows invasion of weeds, particularly undesirable grasses. Continuous herbivory by domestic or feral ungulates without adequate rest for preferred forages will have the same result. This conversion by either factor can be avoided if timely application of deferred and/or prescribed grazing or removal or exclusion of feral ungulates is carried out to regulate guineagrass stature and to allow recovery of desirable species before weeds become dominant.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Planned Grazing System Prescribed Grazing Key drivers
-
Wildlife grazing or browsing
-
Livestock grazing or browsing
Key ecosystem services affected
-
Nutrient cycling
-
Food and fiber: wood products
Pathway P1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1Community phase 1.2 can be converted to phase 1.1 by removing undesirable species and favoring and/or reestablishing desirable pasture species. If adequate stands of guineagrass remain, prescribed grazing may eventually bring about the conversion. Pitted beardgrass and Natal red top have some value as forage. However, barbwire grass, Colombian bluestem, and broomsedge beardgrass are very unpalatable to livestock and therefore difficult to control by grazing. If pasture condition is very poor, weed control followed by reestablishment of guineagrass will be necessary.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Grazing Planned Grazing System Invasive Plant Species Control Invasive Species Pest Management Key drivers
-
Wildlife grazing or browsing
-
Livestock grazing or browsing
Key ecosystem services affected
-
Nutrient cycling
-
Food and fiber: livestock forage
State 2
Invaded Understory State
Figure 3. Invaded Understory State 2.1. Native wiliwili overstory; understory invaded mostly by koa haole. Very Stony Land map unit, elevation 1800 feet, annual rainfall 25 inches. David Clausnitzer, 7/22/08.
This state consists of one community phase having an open canopy of common native trees with an understory of introduced grasses, ferns, vines, small trees, and shrubs. It is created by degradation of State 3 Native Forest. Foraging by feral or domestic ungulates removes native understory plants and prevents regeneration of overstory species, resulting in a diminishing canopy of mature native trees. This may occur more gradually by weed invasion into intact native forest. The understory of this plant community contains fine fuels that are susceptible to wildfire.
Community 2.1
Lama – koaia/lantana/guineagrass Diospyros sandwicensis – Acacia koaia/Lantana camara/Urochloa maximaNative tree species dominate the overstory. The understory consists of a variable array of introduced plant species along with remnant native species.
The overstory is dominated by lama, koaia, or a combination of these species. Tree species diversity can vary widely among locations. Higher, moister areas may have more abundant ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) and olopua (Nestegis sandwicensis).
Among native shrubs, aalii (Dodonaea viscosa) and pukiawe (Leptecophylla tameiameiae) may still be present. The introduced shrub lantana (Lantana camara) can be very abundant. The introduced vine huehue haole or corkystem passionflower (Passiflora suberosa) can become very abundant, covering the canopies of remnant native understory plants. Introduced grasses, especially guineagrass, are abundant where sufficient light penetrates the canopy. Christmasberry or Brazilian pepper tree (Schinus terebinthifolius), an introduced small tree that produces a dense, shady canopy, may be abundant.Dominant plant species
-
lama (Diospyros sandwicensis), tree
-
koaoha (Acacia koaia), tree
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lantana (Lantana camara), shrub
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guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), grass
State 3
Native Forest StateThis state consists of one community phase. This description is hypothetical, because very little native vegetation remains in this ecological site. The following description is based on similar ecological sites on the Island of Hawaii. The general appearance of this ecological site is an open to nearly closed canopy 20 to 40 feet (6 to 12 meters) tall, an understory of shrubs and small trees, and a ground layer of vines, forbs, and grasses. The canopy becomes shorter and sparser where the forest grades into drier areas.
Community 3.1
Lama – koaia/ulei – aalii Diospyros sandwicensis – Acacia koaia/Osteomeles anthyllidifolia – Dodonaea viscosaThe tree canopy is dominated by lama (Diospyros sandwicensis) and koaia (Acacia koaia). Alahee (Psydrax odorata), a small tree, is common in the understory. Common shrubs are aalii (Dodonaea viscosa), ilima (Sida fallax), ulei (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia), and akia (Wikstroemia sandwicensis). Huehue (Cocculus orbiculatus) is the most common vine. Native forbs, grasses, and ferns are present but not abundant.
Dominant plant species
-
lama (Diospyros sandwicensis), tree
-
koaoha (Acacia koaia), tree
-
Hawai'i hawthorn (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia), shrub
-
Florida hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa), shrub
State 4
Shrub Invaded Grassland State
Figure 4. State 4. Shrub Invaded Grassland. Guinea grass, glycine and haole koa (fast approaching tree stature). Puu Pa very stony silt loam, 7 to 40 % slopes map unit, elevation 1350 feet, annual rainfall 25 inches. John Proctor, 04/02/21.
This state consists of one community phase. It may have developed from abandoned grazing land, land cleared by fire, or abandoned farmland. Shrubs are dominant in canopy cover and stature. Typically, an array of introduced grass species is present. There is a moderate but increasing cover of young trees, some of which potentially can grow to large stature. This tree cover creates the potential for eventual transition to State 5 Exotic Tree-nvaded.
Community 4.1
Christmasberry (Brazilian peppertree)/aalii – lantana Schinus terebinthifolius/Dodonaea viscosa – Lantana camaraThe shrub community can be a mix of native and introduced species. The most common introduced trees present are christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius), koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala), and kiawe (Prosopis pallida). When managed grasslands have been abandoned and fires have not yet occurred, the plant community consists of very tall guineagrass and a dense stand of koa haole trees. In some cases, native shrubs are abundant.
The overstory most typically contains christmasberry and, in some areas, kiawe and silk oak (Grevillea robusta). Small trees that may be present are the introduced species koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala), klu (Vachellia farnesiana), and common guava (Psidium guajava). Lantana (Lantana camara) is the most common shrub. Common grasses are broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) and molassesgrass (Melinis minutiflora), although guineagrass is dominant in some sites.
Resilience management. Unpalatable, and therefore ungrazed, introduced grasses produce fine fuels that create wildfire risk.
Dominant plant species
-
Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius), tree
-
Florida hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa), shrub
-
lantana (Lantana camara), shrub
State 5
Exotic Tree Invaded StateThis state is comprised of one community phase dominated by introduced trees. Density and composition of understory shrubs, forbs, and grasses varies greatly with overstory closure and height, which affects the susceptibility of this plant community to fire. The density, vigor, and biomass of introduced vegetation can be very high, making restoration to other states expensive and difficult.
Community 5.1
Christmasberry (Brazilian peppertree) – kiawe/lantana Schinus terebinthifolius – Prosopis pallida/Lantana camaraIn many cases, the overstory consists of very dense christmasberry that is 15 to 20 feet (4.5 to 6 meters) tall with very little understory. Introduced tree species such as silk oak (Grevillea robusta), autograph tree (Clusia rosea), kukui (Aleurites moluccana), and octopus tree (Schefflera actinophylla) that have greater height potentials than christmasberry can grow up through the christmasberry canopy and eventually dominate the site. Native alahee (Psydrax odorata) trees sometimes can reproduce and maintain a sparse population in the understory. Kiawe (Prosopis pallida) can be abundant in drier, lower-elevation areas of this ecological site.
The overstory composition can be highly variable from site to site, but christmasberry is typically the most abundant species. Christmasberry often dominates the understory (less than 13 feet or 4 meters tall) and can be so dense as to exclude most other species. Native alahee sometimes persists in shady understory. Where more light is available, the small, introduced trees such as koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala) are common. Lantana (Lantana camara) is the most common shrub.Dominant plant species
-
Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius), tree
-
kiawe (Prosopis pallida), tree
-
lantana (Lantana camara), shrub
State 6
Glycine-Invaded State
Figure 5. Glycine-Invaded State 6.1. David Clausnitzer, 7/22/08.
This state consists of one community phase. It occurs as transitions from states in which glycine (Neonotonia wightii) is present and herbivory is not adequate to control growth of this competitive vine.
Community 6.1
Glycine (Neonotonia wightii)This community phase is completely dominated by glycine, an aggressive vine. Glycine is a leguminous forage plant that is capable of smothering grasses, shrubs and small to medium size trees when not controlled.
Some tall introduced or native trees may remain uncovered by glycine. The understory consists entirely of glycine.Dominant plant species
-
perennial soybean (Neonotonia wightii), other herbaceous
Restoration pathway R1A
State 1 to 3State 1 Reference can be restored to a plant community resembling State 3 Native Forest. Invasive plant species control would be applied to forage species and the many opportunistic plant species that would invade the site. Invasive plant species control would be a perpetual process to maintain the site. Firebreaks must be established and maintained, and suitable fencing must be erected and maintained to exclude domestic and feral ungulates. Extensive planting of native species would follow.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Fence Firebreak Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Native Plant Community Restoration and Management Invasive Plant Species Control Invasive Species Pest Management Transition T1A
State 1 to 4
Reference State
Shrub Invaded Grassland StateState 1 Reference transitions to State 4 Shrub-Invaded Grassland in the absence of disturbance such as fire or herbivory by ungulates such that gradual invasion of weedy shrubs and small trees will occur. If the site contained abundant koa haole before abandonment, these small trees will overtop the guineagrass and greatly increase in abundance. To avoid this transition apply a planned grazing system/prescribed grazing and brush control.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Grazing Planned Grazing System Key drivers
-
Fire frequency
Key ecosystem services affected
-
Food and fiber: livestock forage
Transition T1B
State 1 to 6
Reference State
Glycine-Invaded StateState 1 Reference will transition to State 6 Glycine-Invaded if ungulate herbivory is absent or too light to control glycine growth. To avoid this transition apply a grazing management plan/prescribed grazing and/or herbaceous weed control measures.
Conservation practices
Planned Grazing System Prescribed Grazing Herbaceous Weed Control Key drivers
-
Wildlife grazing or browsing
-
Livestock grazing or browsing
Key ecosystem services affected
-
Food and fiber: livestock forage
Transition T2A
State 2 to 1
Invaded Understory State
Reference StateState 2 Invaded-Understory transitions to State 1 Reference when the native overstory is cleared by disturbance such as fire or by mechanical means. Once cleared it is likely that weed species released from the soil seed bank will require invasive plant species control measures. Seed or plant desired perennial grasses as needed.
Conservation practices
Land Clearing Invasive Plant Species Control Invasive Species Pest Management Key drivers
-
Fire
-
Mechanical soil disturbance
-
Timber management
-
Seeding
Key ecosystem services affected
-
Pollination
-
Aesthetic values
-
Nutrient cycling
-
Food and fiber: livestock forage
-
Wildlife habitat
-
Plant biodiversity
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 3State 2 Invaded-Understory may be restored to a facsimile of State 3 Native Forest by removal of the introduced understory through application of Invasive plant species control and brush control measures. Reintroduction of native understory species is required. The site must be fenced securely to exclude ungulates, and a firebreak must be established and maintained.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Fence Firebreak Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats Native Plant Community Restoration and Management Invasive Plant Species Control Transition T2B
State 2 to 5State 2 Invaded-Understory transitions to State 5 Exotic Tree-Invaded by growth of introduced tree species through and above the native canopy, resulting in competition for light, nutrients and space. Lack of reproduction, establishment and persistence leads to gradual loss of most native tree species. This transition may be avoided by applying Invasive plant species management measures.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Native Plant Community Restoration and Management Invasive Plant Species Control Key drivers
-
Wildlife grazing or browsing
-
Livestock grazing or browsing
-
Mechanical soil disturbance
-
Nonnative plant species presence and/or establishment
Key ecosystem services affected
-
Pollination
-
Aesthetic values
-
Genetic resources
-
Sense of place
-
Nutrient cycling
-
Spiritual and religious values
-
Climate regulation: carbon cycling and storage
-
Wildlife habitat
-
Animal biodiversity
-
Plant biodiversity
Restoration pathway T3B
State 3 to 1State 3 Native Forest transitions to State 1 Reference when native vegetation is cleared by disturbances such as fire or by mechanical means. Once cleared, seed or plant desirable perennial grass and forb species and apply invasive plant species management as needed.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Land Clearing Range Planting Invasive Species Pest Management Transition T3B
State 3 to 2State 3 Native Forest transitions to State 2 Invaded-Understory through grazing, browsing, rooting, and trampling by domestic or feral ungulates (cows, sheep, deer, goats, and pigs). These activities destroy small native plant species and seedlings and saplings of large species. Regeneration of the native forest is prevented, leading to tree populations consisting almost entirely of mature plants. Lack of competition from native plants, introduction of weed seeds, and disturbance of the soil lead to an understory dominated by introduced plant species. Weeds can invade intact native forest even in the absence of ungulates and gradually bring about the transition. Invasive vines, shrubs, and small trees will grow under intact native canopies and begin to degrade the forest. Eventually, the fine fuels produced by introduced grasses can carry wildfires that destroy the native tree canopy. This transition may be avoided by building a fence to exclude domestic and feral ungulates and by applying continued invasive plant species management measures.
Conservation practices
Fence Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Key drivers
-
Wildlife grazing or browsing
-
Livestock grazing or browsing
-
Nonnative pest presence and/or establishment
-
Nonnative plant species presence and/or establishment
Key ecosystem services affected
-
Pollination
-
Aesthetic values
-
Genetic resources
-
Sense of place
-
Nutrient cycling
-
Wildlife habitat
-
Animal biodiversity
-
Plant biodiversity
Transition T4A
State 4 to 5State 4 Shrub-Invaded Grassland transitions to State 5 Exotic Tree-Invaded without disturbance such as fire or brush control. Fast-growing introduced tree species invade Shrub Invaded Grassland and quickly overtop shrubs. This transition can be avoided through application of brush management and invasive plant species control measures.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Invasive Plant Species Control Key drivers
-
Fire frequency
Key ecosystem services affected
-
Food and fiber: livestock forage
Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 1State 5 Exotic Tree-Invaded may be restored to State 1 Reference with disturbance such as fire or land clearing by mechanical means. Soil disturbance by heavy machinery may induce germination of the weed seed bank and increase the potential for soil erosion. Invasive plant species control and brush management must then be applied multiple times to control new weed germination and resprouting. After clearing and invasive plant species management, the site would be planted to forage species. Ungulates would have to be excluded until forages are well established; prescribed grazing must then be applied.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Fence Land Clearing Range Planting Planned Grazing System Prescribed Grazing Invasive Plant Species Control Transition T5A
State 5 to 6State 5 Exotic Tree-Invaded transitions to State 6 Glycine-Invaded where glycine (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=NEWI2" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Neonotonia wightii</i></a>) is present or on adjoining land and is not controlled, or ungulates are not present to consume glycine. This transition can be avoided by application of a planned grazing system/prescribed grazing and/or herbaceous weed control measures.
Conservation practices
Planned Grazing System Prescribed Grazing Herbaceous Weed Control Key drivers
-
Wildlife grazing or browsing
-
Livestock grazing or browsing
Key ecosystem services affected
-
Aesthetic values
-
Food and fiber: livestock forage
Restoration pathway R6A
State 6 to 1
Glycine-Invaded State
Reference StateState 6 Glycine-Invaded transitions to State 1 Reference with application of targeted herbivory by livestock or herbaceous weed control. Once glycine has been effectively controlled, desired grasses can be reintroduced as needed during periods when animals are on other paddocks. Transitions T4B and T5A to State 6 Glycine-Invaded has been used intentionally and successfully to smother weedy vegetation up to the size of christmasberry on Kapapala Ranch on the island of Hawaii (Gordon Cran, personal communication). The weedy site is fenced and ungulates are removed, allowing glycine to smother weeds completely. Goats are then allowed onto the site to consume remaining or opportunistic understory weeds; glycine stems become too woody for the goats to eat. After about eight years, the dead trees collapse to the ground. At this point, grazing animals are allowed back on the site to consume glycine. Desired forage grasses can be replanted during periods when animals are on other paddocks.
Conservation practices
Range Planting Planned Grazing System Prescribed Grazing Herbaceous Weed Control Additional community tables
Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 7. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 8. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 9. Community 3.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 10. Community 4.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 11. Community 5.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 12. Community 6.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Supporting information
Other references
Definitions
These definitions have been greatly simplified for brevity and do not cover every aspect of each topic.
Aa lava: A type of basaltic lava having a rough, jagged, clinkery surface and a vesicular interior.
Alluvial: Materials or processes associated with transportation and/or deposition by running water.
Aquic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is free of dissolved oxygen because it is saturated by water. This regime typically exists in bogs or swamps.
Aquisalids: These are salty soils in wet areas. Although wet, the dissolved salts make the soils physiologically dry (the chemical activity, or effective concentration, of water is low). Aquisalids typically support plant species that are adapted to these conditions.
Aridic soil moisture regime: A regime in which defined parts of the soil are, in normal years, dry for more than half of the growing season and moist for less than 90 consecutive days during the growing season. In Hawaii it is associated with hot, dry areas with plants such as kiawe, wiliwili, and buffelgrass. The terms aridic and torric are basically the same.
Ash field: a land area covered by a thick or distinctive deposit of volcanic ash that can be traced to a specific source and has well defined boundaries. The term “ash flow” is erroneously used in the Physiographic section of this ESD due to a flaw in the national database.
Ashy: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of less than 30 percent; a soil that holds relatively less water than “medial” and “hydrous” soils.
Available water capacity: The amount of soil water available to plants to the depth of the first root-restricting layer.
Basal area or basal cover: The cross sectional area of the stem or stems of a plant or of all plants in a stand.
Blue rock: The dense, hard, massive lava that forms the inner core of an aa lava flow.
Bulk density: the weight of dry soil per unit of volume. Lower bulk density indicates a greater amount of pore space that can hold water and air in a soil.
CaCO3 equivalent: The amount of free lime in a soil. Free lime exists as solid material and typically occurs in regions with a dry climate.
Canopy cover: The percentage of ground covered by the vertical projection downward of the outermost perimeter of the spread of plant foliage. Small openings within the canopy are included.
Community pathway: A description of the causes of shifts between community phases. A community pathway is reversible and is attributable to succession, natural disturbances, short-term climatic variation, and facilitating practices, such as grazing management.
Community phase: A unique assemblage of plants and associated dynamic soil properties within a state.
Dominant species: Plant species or species groups that exert considerable influence upon a community due to size, abundance, or cover.
Drainage class: The frequency, duration, and depth of a water table in a soil. There are seven drainage classes, ranging from “excessively drained” (soils with very rare or very deep water tables) to “well drained” (soils that provide ample water for plant growth but are not so wet as to inhibit root growth) to “very poorly drained” (soils with a water table at or near the surface during much of the growing season that inhibits growth of most plants).
Electrical conductivity (EC): A measure of the salinity of a soil. The standard unit is deciSiemens per meter (dS/m), which is numerically equivalent to millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). An EC greater than about 4 dS/m indicates a salinity level that is unfavorable to growth of most plants.
Euic: This is a “Reaction Class” for Histosols that is determined by having pH >4.5 in 0.01 M CaCl2 in one or more layers in the control section
Friability: A soil consistency term pertaining to the ease of crumbling of soils.
Gleyed: A condition of soil from which iron has been reduced (in the redox chemistry sense) and removed during soil formation or that saturation with stagnant water has preserved a reduced state. If iron has been removed, the soil is the color of uncoated sand and silt particles. If iron is present in a reduced state, the soil is the color of reduced iron (typically bluish-gray). Redox concentrations (spots of oxidized iron, formerly called mottles are often present.
Hydrous: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 100 percent or more; a soil that holds more water than “medial” or “ashy” soils.
Ion exchange capacity: The ability of soil materials such as clay or organic matter to retain ions (which may be plant nutrients) and to release those ions for uptake by roots.
Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) or higher and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Isomesic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 47 degrees F (8 degrees C) or higher but lower than 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Isothermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) or higher but lower than 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Kipuka: An area of land surrounded by younger (more recent) lava. Soils and plant communities within a kipuka are older than, and often quite different from, those on the surrounding surfaces.
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): A geographic area defined by NRCS that is characterized by a particular pattern of soils, climate, water resources, and land uses. The island of Hawaii contains nine MLRAs, some of which also occur on other islands in the state.
Makai: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the sea.”
Mauka: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the mountain” or “inland.”
Medial: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent; a soil that holds an amount of water intermediate to “hydrous” or “ashy” soils.
Mollisols: Soils with relatively thick, dark surface horizons, high cation-exchange capacity, high calcium content, that do not become hard or very hard when dry. Mollisols are conducive to plant growth. They characteristically form under grass in climates that are seasonally dry but can form under forests.
Naturalized plant community: A community dominated by adapted, introduced species. It is a relatively stable community resulting from secondary succession after disturbance. Most grasslands in Hawaii are in this category.
Oxisols: Soils characteristic of humid, tropical or subtropical regions that formed on land surfaces that have been stable for a long time. In Hawaii, they typically occur on islands or parts of islands that have been volcanically inactive for a long time. Oxisols are highly weathered, consist largely of quartz, kaolin clays, and aluminum oxides, and have low ion exchange capacity and loamy or clayey texture.
Pahoehoe lava: A type of basaltic lava with a smooth, billowy, or rope-like surface and vesicular interior.
Parent material: Unconsolidated and chemically weathered material from which a soil is developed.
Perudic soil moisture regime: A very wet regime found where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration in all months of normal years. On the island of Hawaii, this regime is found on top of Kohala and on parts of the windward side of Mauna Kea.
pH: The numerical expression of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a soil sample. A pH of 7 is neutral; a pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is basic.
Phosphorus adsorption: The ability of soil materials to tightly retain phosphorous ions, which are a plant nutrient. Some volcanic ash soils retain phosphorus so strongly that it is partly unavailable to plants.
Psamments: Sandy soils that have low water-holding capacity, are susceptible to wind erosion, and typically have ground water deeper than 20 inches (50 centimeters).
Reference community phase: The phase exhibiting the characteristics of the reference state and containing the full complement of plant species that historically occupied the site. It is the community phase used to classify an ecological site.
Reference state: A state that describes the ecological potential and natural or historical range of variability of an ecological site.
Residuum: Unconsolidated mineral material that has chemically and physically weathered from rock and has not moved from its place of origin.
Restoration pathway: A term describing the environmental conditions and practices that are required to recover a state that has undergone a transition.
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR): A measure of the amount of dissolved sodium relative to calcium and magnesium in the soil water. SAR values higher than 13 create soil conditions unfavorable to most plants.
Soil moisture regime: A term referring to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa (the crop wilting point) in the soil or in specific horizons during periods of the year.
Soil temperature regime: A defined class based on mean annual soil temperature and on differences between summer and winter temperatures at a specified depth.
Soil reaction: Numerical expression in pH units of the relative acidity or alkalinity or a soil.
Spodosols: Soils with a spodic B horizon that has an accumulation of black or reddish amorphous materials that have a high pH-dependent ion exchange capacity, coarse texture, and few base cations. Above the spodic horizon there often is a light-colored albic horizon that was the source of the amorphous materials in the spodic horizon.
State: One or more community phases and their soil properties that interact with the abiotic and biotic environment to produce persistent functional and structural attributes associated with a characteristic range of variability.
State-and-transition model: A method used to display information about relationships between vegetation, soil, animals, hydrology, disturbances, and management actions on an ecological site.
Torric soil moisture regime: See Aridic soil moisture regime.
Transition: A term describing the biotic or abiotic variables or events that contribute to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states.
Udic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years, and so provides ample moisture for plants. In Hawaii it is associated with forests in which hapuu (tree ferns) are usually moderately to highly abundant.
Ultisols: Soils that have been intensively leached and weathered. They have a B horizon that has accumulated clay that has translocated there from higher horizons. They have moderate to low cation exchange capacity and low base saturation. The highest base saturation normally is in the few centimeters directly beneath the surface due to cycling of bases by plants.
Ustic soil moisture regime: A regime in which moisture is limited but present at a time when conditions are suitable for plant growth. In Hawaii it usually is associated with dry forests and subalpine shrublands.
Other References
Abrahamson I. 2013. Fire regimes in Hawai'ian plant communities. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/fire_regimes/Hawaii/all.html [ 2020, April 29].
Allen, M.S., 2014. Marquesan colonization chronologies and post colonization interaction: implications for Hawaiian origins and the‘Marquesan Homeland’ hypothesis. Journal of Pacific Archaeology, 5(2), pp.1-17. Discussions of earliest Polynesian migrations to Hawaii.
Armstrong RW. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Athens JS. Ch. 12 Hawaiian Native Lowland Vegetation in Prehistory in Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands – Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change. Kirch, PV and TL Hunt, eds. 1997. Yale U. Press, New Haven.
Burney DA, HF James, LP Burney, SL Olson, W Kikuchi, WL Wagner, M Burney, D McCloskey, D Kikuchi, FV Grady, R Gage II, and R Nishek. 2001. Fossil evidence for a diverse biota from Kauai and its transformation since human arrival. Ecological Monographs 71:615-641.
Christensen CC. 1983. Report 17: Analysis of land snails. In: Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT. and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.
Clark JT. 1983. Report 3: The Waimea-Kawaihae Region: Historical Background. In: Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.
Clark JT. 1983. Report 7: Archaeological investigations in Section 4. In: Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.
Clark JT. 1983. Report 8: Archaeological investigations of agricultural sites in the Waimea area. In: Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.
Craighill ES and EG Handy. 1991. Native Planters in Old Hawaii – Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI
Cuddihy LW and CP Stone. 1990. Alteration of Native Hawaiian Vegetation: Effects of Humans, Their Activities and Introductions. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Study Unit.
Deenik J and AT McClellan. 2007. Soils of Hawaii. Soil and Crop Management, Sept. 2007, SCM-20. Cooperativve Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. University of Hawaii at Manoa. Available online at: https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/SCM-20.pdf
Giambelluca TW and TA Schroeder. 1998. Climate. In: Atlas of Hawaii, 3rd edition. SP Juvik, JO Juvik, and RR Paradise, eds. pp. 49-59. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Gil CR. 2016-2017. Ananas comosus. Colegio Bolivar Agricultural Science. Available online at: https://www.colegiobolivar.edu.co/garden/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Crosas-Ananas-comosus-2017.pdf
Handy ESC Handy EG and Pukui MK. 1972. Native Planters in Old Hawaii Their Life, Lore, and Environment. (Revised Edition, 1991).Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233. Honolulu. Hawaiian understanding of climate, weather and seasons.
Hazlett RW and DW Hyndman. 1996. Roadside Geology of Hawaii. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula MT.
Henke LA. 1929. A Survey of Livestock in Hawaii. Research Publication No. 5. University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Horrocks M. 2009. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and banana (Musa sp.) microfossils in deposits from the Kona Field System, Island of Hawaii. Journal of Archaeological Science, May 2009.
Imada, C. 2012. Hawaiian Native and Naturalized Vascular Plants Checklist (December 2012 update). Bishop Museum Technical Report 60. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.
Juvik JO and D Nullet. 1993. Relationships between rainfall, cloud-water interception, and canopy throughfall in a Hawaiian montane forest. IN: Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Proc. Int. Sym., San Juan, PR. Hamilton LS, JO Juvik, and FN Scatena, eds. East-West Center.
Kirch PV. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians in the Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Science 36(1):1-14.
Kirch PV. 1983. Introduction. In Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.
Kirch PV. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Kirch PV. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Leopold LB. 1949. The interaction of trade wind and sea breeze, Hawaii. Journal of Meteorology 6: 312-320.
Little EL Jr. and RG Skolmen. 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and Introduced). US Department of Agriculture-US Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 679. (out of print). Available at www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/misc/ah679.pdf
Malo, David. 1903. Hawaiian Antiquities. N.B. Emerson (trans.). Bishop Museum Special Publication 2. Honolulu. Hawaiian understandingof climate, weather and seasons.
McEldowney H. 1983. Report 16: A description of major vegetation patterns in the Waimea-Kawaihae region during the early historic period. In: Archaeological investigations of the
Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.
Mubyana T. 1997/98. Effects of continuous sugarcane and pineapple cropping on organic matter and soil microbial biomass. Journal of African Research and Development 27&28:258-269.
Mueller-Dombois D and FR Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
Palmer DD. 2003. Hawaii’s Ferns and Fern Allies. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Pratt HD. 1998. A Pocket Guide to Hawaii’s Trees and Shrubs. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.
Reppun F, Silva JHS, Wong K, and Deenik JL. 2017. A Soil Phosphorus Primer for Hawaiian Soils. Soil and Crop Management, August 2017, SCM-33. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. Available online at: https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/SCM-33.pdf
Ripperton JC and EY Hosaka. 1942. Vegetation zones of Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 89:1-60.
Rock JF. The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands. 1st edition 1913, reprinted 1974, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, VT and Tokyo, Japan.
Sanderson, M (ed.). 1993. Prevailing Trade Winds, Weather and Climate in Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. Hawaiianunderstanding of climate, weather and seasons.
Schroeder TA. 1981. Characteristics of local winds in northwest Hawaii. Journal of Applied Meteorology 20: 874-881.
Sherman LA and KR Brye. 2019. Soil chemical property changes in response to long-term pineapple cultivation in Costa Rica. Agrosystems, Geosciences and Environment. Available online at: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.2134/age2019.07.0052
Shoji SD, M Nanzyo, and R Dahlgren. 1993. Volcanic Ash Soils: Genesis, Properties and Utilization. Elsevier, New York.
Silva JA and R Uchida, eds. 2000. Plant Nutrient Management in Hawaii’s Soils, Approaches for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. Available online at: https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/pnm0.pdf
Sohmer SH and R Gustafson. 2000. Plants and Flowers of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Soil Survey Staff. 2014. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, Twelfth Edition. USDA – NRCS.
Steadman DW. 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science 267:1123-1131.
Stearns 1942.
USDA-NRCS. Island of Hawaii Soil Surveys 801 and 701. Available online at https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/HomePage.htm
USDA-NRCS. 1972. Soil Survey of the Islands of Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai, State of Hawaii. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
USDA-NRCS-PIA Threatened & Endangered Species GIS files. Not publicly available.
USDI-USGS. 2006. A GAP Analysis of Hawaii. Final Report and Data.
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Welch DJ 1983. Report 5: Archaeological investigations in Section 2. In: Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Island of Hawaii: An Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI.
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David Clausnitzer
John Proctor
Carolyn Wong
Mike Kolman
Mathew Cocking
Kendra Moseley
Amy Koch
Michael Constantinides
Jennifer HigashinoApproval
Kendra Moseley, 5/08/2025
Acknowledgments
Assistance, advice, review, and/or insights: Elena Dosamantes, NRCS Darren Pinnegar, NRCS Jamin Johanson, NRCS Tyler Annetts, NRCS Kekai Kapu Kristin Almasin, Ulapalakua Ranch Jason Hew, NRCS Randy Bartlett, Puu Kukui Watershed Preserve Alison Cohan, The Nature Conservancy Michael Constantinides, NRCS-PIA Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch Diana Crow, Ulupalakua Ranch Lance DeSilva, Hawaii DLNR Kerri Fay, Waikamoi Preserve, The Nature Conservancy Alex Franco, Kaupo Ranch Ranae Ganske-Cerizo, NRCS Carl Hashimoto, NRCS Jennifer Higashino, USFWS and NRCS Bob Hobdy, consultant, Maui Wallace Jennings, NRCS Mel Johansen, The Nature Conservancy Jordan Jokiel, Haleakala Ranch David Leonard, volunteer Penny Levin Reese Libby, GIS - NRCS Hannah Lutgen, Maui SWCD Joseph May, NRCS Scott Meidel, Haleakala Ranch Anna Palomino, Hoolawa Farms Inc. Jon Price, USGS Tamara Sherrill, USFWS, Maui Nui Botanical Garden Amber Starr, Hana Ranch Kahana Stone, NRCS Mark Vaught, Water Resources, Alexander & Baldwin Jacqueline Vega, NRCS Rich von Wellsheim, Whispering Bamboos, Kipahulu
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Contact for lead author Date 09/19/2026 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
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Presence of water flow patterns:
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Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
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Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
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Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
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Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
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Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
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Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
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Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
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Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
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Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
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Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
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Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
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Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
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Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
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Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
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Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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PrintThe Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.
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