State 1
Cypress Swamps

Figure 11. Cypress Swamp as seen in the dry season (Nov - May). Cypress trees often form a monostand characterized by buttressed trunks, cypress knees, and sparse understory vegetation. Water marks on trunks show depth of flooding during the wet season (June - Oct).

The natural (native) vegetation of this state is mainly dominated by Bald Cypress and Pond Cypress (Taxodium distichum and T. ascendens, respectfully). Occasional fire contributes to the maintenance of a cypress dominated community; without fire, hardwood invasion and peat accumulation create a mixed hardwood and cypress swamp, and under certain conditions the strand may convert to a hardwood forest. In the center of the swamp, there may be open marshes or deeper sloughs. Cypress Swamps have small young trees towards their outer edges, grading into larger and older stands towards the interior, giving the community a distinctively rounded cross -section profile. This site occurs when organic soils accumulate in depressions that are inundated for much of the year, particularly during summer months when litter decomposition rates are high. These organic soils create a unique environment that increases species diversity and structural development in South Florida wetland communities.

Characteristics and indicators. This state is characterized by nearly pure stands of cypress trees (Taxodium spp.) that are distinguished by buttressed trunks. They have smaller, younger trees along the periphery of the swamps, grading into larger and older trees in the center. This gives the community a distinctively rounded cross-section profile.

Resilience management. This state is maintained by both stressors from water and fire. Hydroperiods range from 200 to 300 days per year which only allow flooding tolerant species to survive. Drainage of this site can allow for the invasion of non-native and exotic species and transition the site to a more mesic hardwood community. Fire is another major stressor in this state, with interior swamps burning at long time periods up to every 100 to 150 years, and the edges every 3 to 5 years. The stress from fire prevents the accumulation of organic matter and transition into a hardwood community.

Community 1.1
Dome Swamp

Figure 12. Inside of a cypress dome swamp at the end of the wet season (late Nov). Water marks on trees show the seasonal depth during the peak wet season (June-Nov).

Figure 13. Inside of Cypress Dome Swamp during the dry season ( Dec- May). Standing water is present in lowest, deepest area (Right middleground). Water marks on buttressed trunk shows depth of water during the wet season (June- Oct).

Typically defined as an isolated, forested, depression wetland occurring within a fire-maintained community. These swamps are generally small but may also be large and shallow. They occur when acid byproducts of organic matter decomposition dissolve limestone bedrock causing the soil to slump over the sinkhole, creating a conical depression. These domes have thick layers of peat in the center which is able to hold water for the majority of the year, with the tallest, biggest cypress trees in the center of the dome and smallest, youngest cypress trees on the outskirts. This gives the dome a distinctly rounded cross-sectional profile. Isolated freshwater marshes in the center of the dome can also give it a doughnut shape from aerial views. The isolated deep center zone of a dome swamp will have open water support submerged aquatic vegetation and floating species in the wet season, and can support herbaceous grasses and forbs during the short dry periods.

Resilience management. These wetlands function as reservoirs that recharge the aquifer when adjacent water tables drop and fluctuate with seasonal rainfall. The normal hydroperiod is 200 to 300 days out of the year which acts as a stressor to maintain this community to prevent transition to another community. Normal fire return intervals range anywhere form 3 to 5 years along the outer edge to as long as 100 to 150 years along the inner dome. Fire is used to maintain this community, without periodic fires hardwood invasion and peat accumulation would convert the dome to a hardwood forest. Depending on the extent of limestone trough or sinkhole, the dome swamp may expand into an irregular formed strand swamp.

Community 1.2
Strand Swamp

Strand Swamps are shallow, forested, usually elongated depression or channel situated in a trough within a flat limestone plain, with small, young, cypress trees at the outer edge grading into large, old cypress trees in the interior. The strand has a distinctly rounded cross-sectional profile. Strand swamps are deepest and have peat towards the center, with the edges having little organic matter over sand. Microsites found on cypress knees or slight topographic highs permit for more mesic species to be found in this highly diverse community. This community will often form from continuing lowering of bedrock surface by dissolution and mechanical break up of cap rocks by trees, connecting isolated dome swamps into a larger isolated swamp system.

Resilience management. These wetlands function as reservoirs that recharge the aquifer when adjacent water tables drop and fluctuate with seasonal rainfall. The normal hydroperiod is 200 to 300 days out of the year which acts as a stressor to maintain this community to prevent transition to another community. Normal fire return intervals range anywhere form 3 to 5 years along the outer edge to as long as 100 to 150 years along the inner swamp. Fire is used to maintain this community, without periodic fires hardwood invasion and peat accumulation would convert the dome to a hardwood forest.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Swamp expansion occurs via seeding from trees and seed dispersal from birds or other animals. If the conditions are met for dome swamps to expand then they will grow out to form a strand swamp over a long period of time.

Context dependence.Swamp expansion can occur if the depression in the limestone bedrock that formed the dome swamp extends further out. If the dome swamp exists within a limestone trough it may extend to form a fully developed strand swamp. This is not only a spatially depending process, depending on the depressions formed in limestone bedrock that allows peat accumulation, but temporally dependent as well. For the swamp to expand larger it would take centuries to achieve full growth in the representative landscape. This is also depending on the natural landscape remaining the same with no alterations in land use changes or hydrologic flow.

State 2
Mixed Hardwood Swamps

Hardwood swamps are dominated by a mix of hydrophytic hardwood trees including bays and cabbage palms. This state occurs on low, wet sites and has short hydroperiods that are inundated seldom over 60 days per year, but are maintained on a consistently saturated peat substrate. These communities form within the Miami Ridge / Atlantic Coastal Strip ecoregion when fire is excluded from cypress swamps for an extended period, allowing organic matter accumulation to create shallower depressions in the landscape, shortening the hydroperiod. With greater accumulation of organic matter and a shortened hydroperiod, hardwood vegetation can become established and, over time, shade out the existing vegetation. Shading from the newly established hardwood species will perpetuate organic matter accumulation and moist soil conditions, favoring this state, continuing the expansion of these communities.

Characteristics and indicators. Hardwood swamps are characterized by hardwood hydrophytic species such as bays and cabbage palms as well as cypress. They are constantly saturated but only inundated for about 60 days per year during the wet season of the summer months (June- October).

Resilience management. The main influencing factors in this state consist of infrequent to occasional fires and long term hydroperiods. Human alterations to surrounding communities can inadvertently drain these sites, making them susceptible to catastrophic fires, in which the organic matter accumulation will be lost, reverting the community back to cypress swamp vegetation or to shrub thickets, depending on the root damage from the fire. Increases in long term hydroperiods will shift the community back towards a cypress swamp as the hardwood species can tolerate some flooding but not the same amount as cypress. Drainage will allow for invasive species to become established that can outcompete the native vegetation.

Community 2.1
Cypress Dominated Baygall

Baygall, also referred to as bay swamps or bay heads, are evergreen forested wetlands of bay species in a large basin with deep peat soils that are acidic within a well developed forest. They typically develop on wet soils in depressions and in stagnant drainages that maintain a saturated peat substrate via seepage, rainfall, or capillary action. This community varies in size and can range from small tree islands within marsh or prairie communities to many acres within a mature forest. These communities typically are restricted to pockets on tree islands and within mature cypress swamps. They develop when fire has been excluded from cypress swamps, allowing organic matter to accumulate and creating a positive feedback that allows the establishment of bays. Cypress swamps are very similar to baygalls, with many instances of intermediate stages between these communities primarily caused by fire and logging history. However, cypress swamps experience greater water fluctuation and greater water depths than baygalls

Resilience management. As the bay species grow, the shade intolerant cypress species are inhibited which shifts vegetation and soil conditions to favor shade intolerant species to germinate and grow in low light conditions.

Community 2.2
Shrub Thicket

This community is the result from a peat fire that killed the existing root system of the dominant hardwood species. Where the peat layer and root systems are destroyed, the area may be lowered and dominant hardwood and regenerating cypress killed. The area may then be replaced by a monospecific stand of willow or pop ash, which have readily dispersible seeds.

Resilience management. Lack of fire is used to maintain this community and what differentiates it from shrub bogs. Over time the lack of fire will cause a transition back to a baygall community as accumulation of organic matter raises the surface of the ground above the seasonal high water table and allow for hardwood species to regrow. Due to their low position in the landscape this can be anywhere from a few centimeters to a few inches difference from seasonal flooding to being dry.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

A deep peat burn consumes the medium in which roots grow and thus eliminates recovery by resprout. Trees that survive with fire-damaged roots may later be blown over in high intensity storm events. Depending on the amount of peat burned, the ground level may be lowered so much the hydroperiod may be too long for cypress regeneration. The lowered peat and longer hydroperiod allow for the growth of shrub thickets such as willow heads or bays. If the ground level is lowered far enough, open water may create an open lake.

Context dependence.Fires that can destroy the peat layer typically happen during periods of drought, when the water table is lowered enough for the peat to begin to dry out and readily burn. Fires can be devastating and burn very rapidly through this area or can smolder for long periods of time.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

The main driver in this transition is the absence of fire which allows the accumulation of organic matter. This can raise the surface of the ground by a few centimeters or inches which will change the depth to the seasonal high water table allowing for the full development of bay species.

Context dependence.Growth of hardwood species can cause a positive feedback loop in which the ground layer becomes shaded and remains moist for longer periods, excluding fire from the system and allowing for the accumulation of organic matter which can raise the ground surface over time.

State 3
Invasive Non-Native Community

This state consists of Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS) Non-Native Category 1 Species list . More information on these species list can be found:

https://www.fdacs.gov/content/download/63140/file/Florida%E2%80%99s_Pest_Plants.pdf

or by contacting the UF / IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants (http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/),

the UF / IFAS Assessment of Non-native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas (https://assessment.ifas.ufl.edu/),

or the FWC Invasive Plant Management Section (http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/invasive-plants/).

This community will not represent every possibility of invasive species but rather the most common in these areas.

Characteristics and indicators. Non-Native species include species that exist outside of Florida's natural range and are introduced to the state via people, weather events, or any other means.

Resilience management. This state can be found as a part of any other state or community and can completely destroy the native habitat if not properly managed. Restoration to natural communities after exotic invasion include practices such as mechanical and chemical removal.

State 4
Managed Resource Areas

The following communities comprise the major land uses in the United States and the land uses receiving the majority of the conservation treatment that address soil, water, air, plant, and animal resources within the USDA.

Characteristics and indicators. These land uses consist of areas that are not completely naturalized (i.e. native habitat) but are not completely altered by anthropogenic means.

Community 4.1
Rangeland

Rangelands are described as lands on which the indigenous vegetation is predominately grasses, grass-like plants, forbs, and possibly shrubs or dispersed trees. Existing plant communities can include both native and introduced plants. Primary export from Florida ranges are cattle and have been present in the state since their first introduction by Spanish explorers in 1521. This is the reference community for this state because it requires very little alterations to the landscape for grazing species.

Rangelands provide a diversity of ecosystems and also provide a diverse and significant production of economic benefits and ecosystem goods and services. Livestock production along with sustainable wildlife populations provide for the major direct economic benefits, but also tourism, recreational uses, minerals/energy production, renewable energy, and other natural resource uses can be very significant. Vital ecosystem contributions include clean water, clean air, fish/wildlife habitat, as well as intangible considerations such as historical, cultural, aesthetic and spiritual values.

Resilience management. Grazing, by both domestic livestock and wildlife, is the most common ecological management process, with fire and weather extremes also being significant ecological factors. For information regarding specific cattle grazing techniques please contact your local NRCS office.

Community 4.2
Open Transitional Managed Communities

This is an area that is managed to maintain open land before shifting to another community. These communities are often used as transitional periods from one practice to another and could lead to an abandoned / fallow field.

Community 4.3
Improved Pasture

Pasture is a land use type having vegetation cover comprised primarily of introduced or enhanced native forage species that is used for livestock grazing. Pasture vegetation can consist of grasses, legumes, other forbs, shrubs or a mixture. The majority of these forages are introduced, having originally come from areas in other states or continents. Most are now naturalized and are vital components of pasture based grazing systems.
Pasture lands provide many benefits other than forage for livestock. Wildlife use pasture as shelter and for food sources. Well managed pasture captures rainwater that is slowly infiltrated into the soil which helps recharge groundwater. Many small pasture livestock operations are near urban areas providing vistas for everyone to enjoy. Pasture is the basis of any livestock operation that is truly sustainable. It is especially important as livestock grazers continues to experience extraordinarily high fuel and other input costs.

Resilience management. Pastures receive periodic renovation and cultural treatments such as tillage, fertilization, mowing, weed control, and may be irrigated. For more information regarding specific pasture management please contact your local NRCS office.

Community 4.4
Agriculture

The agriculture industry includes cultivated crops, aquaculture, and apiculture. Cultivated cropland includes areas used for the production of adapted crops for harvest. These areas comprises land in row crops or close-grown crops that are in a rotation with row or close-grown crops. Primary export from Florida consists of fruits, greenhouse and nursery products, sugar cane, and the signature export of citrus. Aquaculture includes the cultivation and maintenance of aquatic plants, aquatic reptiles, crustaceans, food/ ornamental fish, shellfish, and other miscellaneous species for harvesting. Apiculture includes the maintenance of honeybees and hives to provide beeswax, honey/ other edible bee products, crop pollination services, and sales of bees to other beekeepers. These areas have been modified resulting in land clearing practices and hydrologic management to fit the growers needs.

Resilience management. Major natural resource concerns facing cropland include: (1) erosion by wind and water, (2) maintaining and enhancing soil quality, (3) water quality from nutrient and pesticides runoff and leaching, and (4) managing the quantity of water available for irrigation. For more specific information regarding cropland please contact your local NRCS office.

Community 4.5
Silviculture

Silviculture is land used in controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests and woodlands to meet the diverse needs and values of landowners and society such as wildlife habitat, timber, water resources, restoration, and recreation on a sustainable basis. These are forestry practices that include thinning, harvesting, planting, pruning, prescribed burning and site preparation, for managed goals such as wildlife habitat creation or harvesting. Many managed silvicultural lands in Florida include tree plantations for growth of tropical ornamental species such as palms; and lumber, pulp, and paper species such as slash pine, longleaf pine, cypress, and eucalyptus.

This community also include management practices of agroforestry, the intentional mixing of trees and shrubs into crop and/or animal production systems to create environmental, economic and social benefits. This is included in this community and not any other state because the primary management is for tree species. This may include practices such as riparian forest buffers, windbreaks, forest farming, silvopasture, and alley cropping.

Resilience management. Management of silvicultural lands require specific prescriptions based on the management goals for the stand, and may include thinning, harvesting, planting, pruning, prescribed burning and site preparation. For more information regarding specific management for silviculture practices please contact your local NRCS office.

Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2

This pathway is driven by land clearing practices that consists of removing the existing vegetation from the habitat and altering the habitat to prepare for modified land use.

Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1

This pathway is driven by the restoration of the native habitat for the use of rangeland. This includes restoration of both the hydrology and landscape in advance of replanting native species. This is a time-consuming process and often results in second-hand community structure. Once restored to a natural capacity the introduction of grazing species to the system creates a managed rangeland.

Pathway 4.2B
Community 4.2 to 4.3

This pathway is driven by preparing the land for pasteurization. This includes the planting of vegetation consisting of grasses, legumes, other forbs, shrubs or a mixture that will provide preferred forage for managed grazing species.

Pathway 4.2C
Community 4.2 to 4.4

This pathway is driven by the preparation of land for agricultural uses. This change is dependent on the type of agricultural community is being created, but often depends on the growing, maintenance, and cultivation of an agricultural product for consumers. This community may require modification to the land to fit the hydrologic requirement of the growing crop.

Pathway 4.2D
Community 4.2 to 4.5

This pathway is driven by the preparation of the land for silvicultural purposes. This change is dependent on the type of silvicultural product being cultivated, as many different practices require different growth requirements.

Pathway 4.3A
Community 4.3 to 4.2

This pathway is driven by land clearing practices that consists of removing the existing vegetation from the habitat and altering the habitat to prepare for modified land use.

Pathway 4.3B
Community 4.3 to 4.4

This pathway is driven by the preparation of land for agricultural uses. This change is dependent on the type of agricultural community is being created, but often depends on the growing, maintenance, and cultivation of an agricultural product for consumers. This community may require modification to the land to fit the hydrologic requirement of the growing crop.

Pathway 4.3C
Community 4.3 to 4.5

This pathway is driven by the preparation of the land for silvicultural purposes. This change is dependent on the type of silvicultural product being cultivated, as many different practices require different growth requirements.

Pathway 4.4A
Community 4.4 to 4.2

This pathway is driven by land clearing practices that consists of removing the existing vegetation from the habitat and altering the habitat to prepare for modified land use.

Pathway 4.4B
Community 4.4 to 4.5

This pathway is driven by the preparation of the land for silvicultural purposes. This change is dependent on the type of silvicultural product being cultivated, as many different practices require different growth requirements.

Pathway 4.5A
Community 4.5 to 4.2

This pathway is driven by land clearing practices that consists of removing the existing vegetation from the habitat and altering the habitat to prepare for modified land use.

State 5
Human Altered and Human Transported Areas

These areas include soils that were intentionally and substantially modified by humans for an intended purpose, commonly for terraced agriculture, building support, mining, transportation, and commerce. The alteration is of sufficient magnitude to result in the introduction of a new parent material (human-transported material) or a profound change in the previously existing parent material (human-altered material). They do not include soils modified through standard agricultural practices or formed soils with unintended wind and water erosion. When a soil is on or above an anthropogenic landform or microfeature, it can be definitely be associated with human activity and is assigned to a unique taxa, usually found as an "Urban land complex" within that communities' natural soil properties (e.g., /urban Land, 0-2% slopes).

Characteristics and indicators. Evidence of these areas include soils with manufactured items (e.g. artifacts) present in the profile, human altered-materials (e.g., deeply excavated or deeply plowed soil) or human-transported material (e.g., fill), and position on or above anthropogenic landforms (e.g., flood-control levees) and microfeatures (e.g., drainage ditches). Detailed criteria regarding the identification of anthropogenic (artificial) landforms, human-altered materials, and human-transported material are in the "Keys to Soil Taxonomy" (Soil Survey Staff, 2014).

Community 5.1
Reclaimed Areas

Reclaimed areas are areas that have been modified through anthropogenic means that are restored to a natural or second-hand natural community. Areas that can be reclaimed are any intensity urban areas, and may be required to be reclaimed after urban use (e.g., active mines must be reclaimed). These practices include the identification, removal, and stockpiling soil materials before altering the land, and revegetation and replacement of soil materials after altering the land. This also applies to nearby urban areas that have been adversely affected by the anthropogenic activities.

Community 5.2
Urban

This urban community consists of development for human use. Urban areas include a variety of land uses, e.g., inner city or urban core, industrial and residential areas, cemeteries, parks, and other open spaces; the overall function which may benefit the quality of human life. These often form an urban soil mosaic, where the natural landscape has been fragmented into parcels with distinctive disturbance and management regimes and, as a result, distinctive characteristic soil properties.

Within this community there are three different levels of urbanization, based off population dynamics, residential density, and intensity of development. These are labeled as low-intensity, medium-intensity, and high-intensity urban areas, which can eventually be split apart into its own separate state. Low-intensity urban areas may consist of single dwelling homes with little impact on the surrounding community which still somewhat represents the natural community (e.g., represents natural landscape, hydrology, and vegetation) , other examples of this are urban parks, cemeteries, or campgrounds with little urban development. Medium-intensity urban areas consist of larger urban dwellings with some natural features, but have been modified to meet urban needs (e.g., towns). High-intensity urban areas are areas of heavily modified areas with complete alterations of the natural landscape, hydrology, and vegetation to support a very large population, which once constructed is permanently altered (e.g., metropolis areas/ active mines).

Community 5.3
Non-Reclaimed Areas

Non-reclaimed areas are areas that have been modified through anthropogenic means that are unable to be restored to a natural or second-hand natural community. Areas that cannot be reclaimed are areas under active mining status or mined areas before the Phosphate Land Reclamation Act in 1975, which leaves shut down operations alone. These areas also include fallow mines that have been flooded and are now permanent bodies of water.

Community 5.4
Landfills

This is an anthropogenic site for the disposal of waste material. It includes manufactured layers (artificial, root limiting layer below the soil surface) that are representative of human altered and human transported sites. These layers are often alternative between natural fill material and geotextile liners, asphalt, concrete, rubber or plastic that are built up and can rise above the surrounding landscape by 30 meters or more often impeding water, gas, or roots from moving through the profile.

Pathway 5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2

This shift in communities is driven by clearing and developing the land for the desired community.

Pathway 5.1B
Community 5.1 to 5.4

This transition is driven by the deposition of manufactured layers along with anthropogenic waste which is consistently built upon.

Pathway 5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.1

This transition is driven by the revegetation, reestablished hydrology, and replacement of displaced soil materials after altering the land.

Pathway 5.2B
Community 5.2 to 5.3

This transition is driven from heavy industrial or urban development which causes the land to become non-reclaimable. This transition is rare due to the many environmental laws and regulations that must be followed when developing.

Pathway 5.2C
Community 5.2 to 5.4

This transition is driven by the deposition of manufactured layers along with anthropogenic waste which is consistently built upon.

Pathway 5.3A
Community 5.3 to 5.1

This transition is driven by the revegetation, reestablished hydrology, and replacement of displaced soil materials after altering the land.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Cypress swamps are dependent on light surface fires as well as long hydroperiods to help maintain community structure and composition. These fires should be allowed to burn naturally within the swamp and be extinguished along natural breaks. In areas where fire has been removed for long periods of time accumulation of organic matter can accumulate and raise the ground surface to allow for the growth of hardwood species.

Constraints to recovery.Growth of hardwood species can cause a positive feedback loop in which the ground layer becomes shaded and remains moist for longer periods, excluding fire from the system and allowing for the accumulation of organic matter which can raise the ground surface over time.

Context dependence.This is a long transitional process, as cypress swamps have fire return intervals ranging from 3 to 5 years along the periphery to over 150 years towards the center of the swamp. Cypress swamps that have bay species in the sub canopy are close to this transition.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The invasion of non-native or exotic species can be driven by a multitude of different environmental factors such as changes in natural hydroperiods or in fire regimes. Typically once a change in one of the two factors mentioned above occurs, non-native or exotic invasive species become established and begin to compete with native species for habitat and nutrients.

Constraints to recovery.Recovery from non-native or exotic invasive species may be difficult due to many adaptations which allow them to outcompete and survive in altered conditions. Localized knowledge for each species must be known for best removal of it without harming the native environment, and often different treatments must be applied over one given area.

Context dependence.Growth of non-native and exotic invasive species can be rapid following a change in a natural stressor such as fire frequency or natural hydroperiods which might have once kept the invasive species at bay.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

This transition is driven by the decrease in localized long term hydroperiods and modifying the land for the desired land use. This may include the establishment of grazing species or the modification of land for the cultivation of crops of other desired products.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 5

This transition is driven by the decrease in localized long term hydroperiod and the alteration and/ or transportation of soils materials via anthropogenic means.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

Transition from mixed hardwood dominated swamps to cypress swamps is mainly influenced by hydroperiods, climate, and fire. Fire must be reestablished within the system to slightly lower the ground level, increasing the hydroperiod and slowly weakening and eventually killing the hardwood species. Available space allows cypress to regenerate with tolerable hydroperiod and fire conditions.

Constraints to recovery.Fire must be reestablished into the system and is dependent on climatic variables as well influences from surrounding pyrogenic communities.

Context dependence.Cypress species are tolerant of light surface fires, helping maintain species composition, but hardwoods and upland conifers are not. These species are killed by surface fires by not only slightly lowering the ground level and increasing the hydroperiods, but through their root systems. The high water tables in cypress swamps forces these species to maintain shallow root systems, which would be weaken and eventually kill these species.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 3

The invasion of non-native or exotic species can be driven by a multitude of different environmental factors such as changes in natural hydroperiods or in fire regimes. Typically once a change in one of the two factors mentioned above occurs, non-native or exotic invasive species become established and begin to compete with native species for habitat and nutrients.

Constraints to recovery.Recovery from non-native or exotic invasive species may be difficult due to many adaptations which allow them to survive and outcompete in intolerable conditions. Localized knowledge for each species must be known for best removal of it without harming the native environment, and often different treatments must be applied over one given area.

Context dependence.Growth of non-native and exotic invasive species can be rapid following a change in a natural stressor such as fire frequency or natural hydroperiods which might have once kept the invasive species at bay.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 4

This transition is driven by the decrease in localized long term hydroperiods and modifying the land for the desired land use. This may include the establishment of grazing species or the modification of land for the cultivation of crops of other desired products.

Transition T2D
State 2 to 5

This transition is driven by the decrease in localized long term hydroperiod and the alteration and/ or transportation of soils materials via anthropogenic means.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

Mechanical, biological, and chemical removal strategies include removing the non-native and exotic invasive species through various mechanisms. Localized knowledge for individual non-native or exotic invasive species is needed for specific management. Sometimes introduction of fire regimes may prevent or stop the growth of non-native or exotic invasive species, but many species are fire tolerant. Mechanical removal might include roller chopping, harvesting, or cutting and removal of invasive species. Chemical removal might include aerial dispersal from planes, or basal bark injection treatments.

Context dependence.Mechanical, biological, and chemical removal of non-native and exotic invasive species is a time dependent process, with both removal types taking long times to be considered effective.

Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 2

Mechanical, biological, and chemical removal strategies include removing the non-native and exotic invasive species through various mechanisms. Localized knowledge for individual non-native or exotic invasive species is needed for specific management. Sometimes introduction of fire regimes may prevent or stop the growth of non-native or exotic invasive species, but many species are fire tolerant. Mechanical removal might include roller chopping, harvesting, or cutting and removal of invasive species. Chemical removal might include aerial dispersal from planes, or basal bark injection treatments.

Context dependence.Mechanical, biological, and chemical removal of non-native and exotic invasive species is a time dependent process, with both removal types taking long times to be considered effective.

Restoration pathway R3C
State 3 to 4

Mechanical, biological, and chemical removal strategies include removing the non-native and exotic invasive species through various mechanisms. Localized knowledge for individual non-native or exotic invasive species is needed for specific management. Sometimes introduction of fire regimes may prevent or stop the growth of non-native or exotic invasive species, but many species are fire tolerant. Mechanical removal might include roller chopping, harvesting, or cutting and removal of invasive species. Chemical removal might include aerial dispersal from planes, or basal bark injection treatments.

Context dependence.Mechanical, biological, and chemical removal of non-native and exotic invasive species is a time dependent process, with both removal types taking long times to be considered effective.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 5

This transition is driven by the decrease in localized long term hydroperiod and the alteration and/ or transportation of soils materials via anthropogenic means.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

These practices include the restoration of both the natural hydroperiod and landscape in advance of revegetating the area (if needed).

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2

These practices include the restoration of both the natural hydroperiod and landscape in advance of revegetating the area (if needed).

Transition T4A
State 4 to 3

The invasion of non-native or exotic species can be driven by a multitude of different environmental factors such as changes in natural hydroperiods or in fire regimes. Typically once a change in one of the two factors mentioned above occurs, non-native or exotic invasive species become established and begin to compete with native species for habitat and nutrients.

Context dependence.Recovery from non-native or exotic invasive species may be difficult due to many adaptations which allow them to outcompete and survive in intolerable conditions. Localized knowledge for each species must be known for best management of it it without harming the natural habitat, and often different treatments must be applied over one given area. Growth of non-native and exotic invasive species can be rapid following a change in a natural stressor such as fire frequency or natural hydroperiods which might have once kept the invasive species at bay.

Transition T4B
State 4 to 5

This transition is driven by the decrease in localized long term hydroperiod and the alteration and/ or transportation of soils materials via anthropogenic means.