State 1
Longleaf /Wiregrass/Bluestem

Plant community species composition and productivity data that follow were determined through on-site inventory at five locations that are representative of the reference community.

Transition pathways from one plant community phase to another within the reference state (state 1) are described below. These pathways describe managment practices associated with triggers and thresholds of these transitions.

Community 1.1
Reference Community - Longleaf Pine/Wiregrass/Bluestem

Figure 5. Fig. 1. Reference state, community 1.1, photo 1

Figure 6. Fig. 2. Reference state, community 1.1, photo 2

The overstory of the community is dominated by, and often exclusively, longleaf pine. Canopies are open (30 to 40% canopy closure) and uneven-aged, consisting of variably sized, even-aged patches. Patches result from recruitment into openings created by windstorms, timber harvest, hot fires, or insect-induced mortality. Slash (Pinus elliottii), shortleaf (P. echinata), or loblolly pine (P. taeda) may occur as a minor component of the overstory. However, historical accounts indicate that mixed-species canopies may have been less common on these sites than in the shortleaf and loblolly pine regions of the Southeast (Bartram, 1791).

Species richness is very high in the herbaceous understory of these communities (Peet and Allard, 1993). The grasses and forb understory has the potential to produce over 3000 lbs. of biomass per acre annually. Grass species include wiregrass (Aristida beyrichiana), bluestems (Schizachyrium and Andropogon spp.), various dropseeds (Sporobolus spp.), toothache grass (Ctenium aromaticum), rosette grass (Dichanthelium spp.), and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum). Sporobolus and Dichanthelium species commonly associated with the community but not seen during our on-site data collection are blood panicgrass (Dichanthelium consanguineum), roughhair rosette grass (Dichanthelium strigosum) and Carolina dropseed (Sporobolus pinetorum). Forbs that occur in these diverse communities include hairy chaffhead (Carphephorus spp.), goldenrod (Solidago spp.), tickseeds (Coreopsis spp.), sunflower (Helianthus spp.), purple false foxglove (Agalinis purpurea), Walter’s aster (Symphyotrichum walteri), narrowleaf silkgrass (Pityopsis graminifolia), and ticktrefoil (Desmodium spp.).

Common shrubs and shrub-like species include Piedmont staggerbush (Lyonia mariana), huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.), inkberry (Ilex glabra), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), wax myrtle (Morella cerifera), shiny blueberry (Vaccinium myrsinites), and runner oak (Quercus margarettae).

Plant community species composition and productivity data that follow were determined through on-site inventory at five locations that are representative of the reference community.

Forest overstory.Overstory is predominately or exclusively longleaf pine with slash or loblolly pine occurring occasionally.

Forest understory. Understory is grass-dominated community containing a species-rich collection of forbs. Scattered low-growing shrubs and hardwood trees may be present.

Community 1.2
Longleaf/hardwood/wiregrass/bluestem

Figure 9. Fig. 3. Reference state, community 1.2, photo 1

Figure 10. Fig. 4. Reference state, community 1.2, photo 2

Hardwood tree and shrub species in longleaf pine forests are kept in check by low-intensity surface fires with a return interval (fire frequency) of no more than 3 years. At least one growing season burn (April-June) for every 2 dormant season burns is necessary to prevent the gradual accumulation of hardwood rootstocks because dormant season burns will only top-kill many species. Wiregrass will not be reproductive unless plants are subjected to growing season fire. A fire return interval of 4 or 5 years hardwoods will increase hardwood foliar cover from < 30% to > 50% and will increase in height from < 3 feet to nearly 5 feet. Hardwoods will begin to shade the ground and reduce the cover and vigor of the grasses that provide much of the fine fuels needed to carry a prescribed burn. The site is now at risk of becoming dominated by hardwood trees and shrubs, reulting in a transition to the mixed pine/hardwood forest state. It is still possible to restore the site to the reference state by applying a dormant season burn to top kill hardwoods and reduce the accumulating coarse fuel load, followed approximately 18 months later with a growing season burn to reduce the number and vigor of hardwood rootstocks. In some cases a second growing season burn approximately 24 months later may be necessary to further reduce the number of hardwood root stocks (Johnson and Gjerstad, 2006).

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Reference Community - Longleaf Pine/Wiregrass/Bluestem

Longleaf/hardwood/wiregrass/bluestem

Triggers- Fire frequency of 1 to 3 years controls encroaching hardwood trees and shrubs. In addition, this fire frequency prevents development of a litter layer that would inhibit longleaf seed germination. Threshold- Fire less frequent than every 3 years, and/or fires only occuring in the dormant season allow hardwood trees to reach 1-inch basal diameter and 3-foot height, making them more tolerant of moderate intensity fire (Brockway and Lewis, 1997).

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Longleaf/hardwood/wiregrass/bluestem

Reference Community - Longleaf Pine/Wiregrass/Bluestem

Apply a dormant season burn to top kill hardwoods and reduce the accumulating coarse fuel load, followed approximately 18 months later with a growing season burn to reduce the number and vigor of hardwood rootstocks. In addition to providing hotter fires to help control hardwoods, prescribed burns during the growing season are critical for wiregrass seed production. In some cases a second growing season burn approximately 24 months later may be necessary to further reduce the number of hardwood root stocks. Mechanical or chemical control methods may also be necessary to reduce initial hardwood tree and brush density.

State 2
Mixed Hardwood/Pine Forest

The mixed longleaf pine, hardwood forest state is characterized by a more closed canopy relative to the reference state. Hardwood trees such as post and blackjack oak, sweetgum and blackgum compete with the remaining longleaf for canopy space. Shrub density and mass is increased relative to the reference state. Herbaceous species richness and productivity will continue to decline with canopy closure and the resulting decrease in sunlight penetration.

Community 2.1
Mixed Hardwood/Pine Forest

Figure 12. Fig. 5. Mixed hardwood/pine, photo 1

Figure 13. Fig. 6. Mixed hardwood/pine, photo 2

Longleaf pine ecosystems develop when the fire return interval is 1-3 years. The vegetation associated with longleaf pine reflects the frequency and severity of burning. In the past, frequent fires resulted in open, park like stands of longleaf with few other woody plants and a ground cover dominated by grasses and forbs. With a reduction in fire occurrence, a fire return interval of 5 years or more, hardwoods and other pines encroach on the longleaf forest. Some of the encroaching trees reach basal diameters greater than four inches, allowing them to survive any surface fires that might occur. Within the range of slash pine (Pinus elliottii), this species becomes increasingly important. For MLRA 153A slash pine may occur in northeastern FL, southeastern GA and southeastern SC. Elsewhere loblolly and/or shortleaf (P. taeda and P. echinata) and hardwoods gradually replace longleaf pine (Burns and Honkala, 1990).

Hardwoods most closely associated with longleaf pine on Atlantic Coastal Flatwood sites include post, blackjack, turkey, sand post, dwarf live, running and water oaks (Q. marilandica, Q. stellata, Q. laevis, Q. margaretta, Q. minima, Q. pumila and Q. nigra); flowering dogwood (Cornus florida); blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica); sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua); and persimmon (Diospyros virginiana. Common shrubs include gallberry (Ilex glabra), yaupon (I. vomitoria), southern bayberry (Myrica cerifera), shining sumac (Rhus copallina), blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.), and blackberry (Rubus spp.).

Basal area per acre of tree species increases from approximately 40-60 square feet per acre (30-45 % canopy closure) in the reference state to 80-100 sq.ft./ac. (approaching 100% canopy closure) in the Mixed Pine/Hardwood State, with longleaf pine typically comprising only 30-50 sq.ft./ac. Grasses and forbs are greatly reduced due to shade from overstory trees, resulting in a degraded stand structure and a reduction in fine fuels needed to carry a prescribed burn.

State 3
Hardwood Forest

Lack of a favorable environment for regeneration and competition from hardwoods and other pines has resulted in either longleaf being lost from the site, or remaining individual trees being widely dispersed. Canopy closure is 100%, and dominated by oaks, hickories and sweetgum. Because of lack of sunlight penetration to the understory, shrub size and numbers are reduced relative to state 2, and herbaceous species characteristic of the reference state are no longer present.

Community 3.1
Hardwood Forest

Figure 14. Fig. 7. Hardwood forest

With a continued reduction in fire occurrence, such as a fire return interval greater than 10 years, hardwoods and other pines further encroach on the longleaf forest. Many encroaching trees exceed basal diameters of 4 inches, allowing them to survive any surface fires that occur. Within the range of slash pine (Pinus elliottii), this species becomes increasingly important. For MLRA 153A slash pine may occur in northeastern FL, southeastern GA and southeastern SC. Elsewhere loblolly (P. taeda) and hardwoods continue to replace longleaf pine.

Hardwoods most likely to reach the forest canopy include southern red, blackjack, post, sand post and water oaks (Quercus falcata, Q. marilandica, Q. stellata, Q. margaretta and Q. nigra); blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica); sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua); red maple (Acer rubrum);mockernut, pignut and sand hickory (Carya tomentosa, C. glabra and C. pallid) and persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). The more common shrubs include flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), gallberry (Ilex glabra), yaupon (I. vomitoria), southern bayberry (Myrica cerifera), shining sumac (Rhus copallina), blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.), and blackberry (Rubus spp.).

Basal area per acre of tree species increases from 80-100 sq.ft./ac. in the mixed pine/hardwood state to more than 120 sq. ft./ac and 100% canopy closure. Longleaf pine is typically absent from this state, or may comprise only 10-30 sq.ft./ac. Understory grasses, forbs and shrubs disappear due to deep shade from overstory trees, causing a further simplification in stand structure and a further reduction in fine fuels needed to carry a prescribed burn.

Although possible, restoration to state 2 would be difficult to justify both economically and from the perspective of addressing resource concerns. Thus, there is not a restoration pathway indicated in the state and transition model. Maintaining the hardwood forest state with normal silvicultural treatments such as selection and group selection timber harvests is a viable option.

It is not known if it is possible to restore the reference state from state 3 simply because of the loss of native ground cover species over time, and the significant changes in mid and overstory community structure. If cultivation or heavy site preparation for tree planting have occurred, few if any native groundcover species, especially wiregrass, are likely to be present in the seed bank. Even without cultivation or heavy site preparation, fire exclusion for 30 or more years will likely deplete the seed bank such that the full complement of native ground cover species cannot be recovered (Frost, 1993). Efforts to restore longleaf pine from existing hardwood forest have had limited success. In some cases removal of the hardwood overstory and restoration of a normal fire regime has resulted in restoration of several native groundcover species. However, it is noteworthy that “dominant rhizomatous and bunch grasses” and “regionally rare species” are among the species most likely to be lost when fire frequency is drastically reduced. In addition, mature longleaf pine that would provide a source of seed critical for restoration are rare, and often do not occur in this state. Since these species are critical to the character of the reference state, we do not show a pathway back from state 3 to the reference state. State 4, planted longleaf pine-native grass state is the closest to the reference state that can be achieved from state 3 (Walker and Silletti, 2006). In many cases, establishing state 4 will achieve a manager's restoration goals, including restoring essential habitat elements for threatened and endangered wildlife species, establishing fine fuels to maintain a normal fire regime, and creating an aesthetically desirable setting.

State 4
Planted Longleaf Pine-Native Grass

Longleaf pine are planted to grow trees to a marketable size, and in the interim sell pine straw as an urban landscape mulch, or to attempt to restore a system that would be similar to the reference plant community (Alig et al., 2002). However, the diversity and richness of herbaceous species and associated animals found in the reference state are unlikely to be achieved. Grasses commonly planted in this state are wiregrass, little bluestem, Indiangrass and switchgrass.

Community 4.1
Planted Longleaf Pine-Native Grass

Figure 15. Fig. 8. Planted longleaf-native grass

A shift to a planted longleaf pine - native grass state could be made from any other forested state (2, 3 or 5) in the ecological site by clear cutting, preparing the site and establishing a pine plantation (Fox et al., 2004). From states 6 and 7, cropland, pasture or old Field, subsoiling will probably be necessary when preparing the site for tree planting. A planted longleaf pine - native grass state can be managed with fire and utilized as wildlife habitat or livestock grazing land.
If shifted from a hardwood forest state (2 or 3), clear cut hardwood trees will sprout from the roots and will have to be controlled, usually with an herbicide. If not controlled, hardwood trees and shrubs will likely take over the site, overtopping and out-competing the longleaf seedlings for light.

If shifted from a pine plantation state (5), there is a large variety of species that could occur in the understory including trees, shrubs, vines, grasses, and grass like species, forbs, and ferns. Some grass species that may occur are bluestem spp., Muhlenberg maidencane, threeawn spp., toothache grass, beaked panicgrass, paspalum spp., lopsided Indiangrass, Curtis’ dropseed, and others. Grasslike species that may occur include sedges, beaked sedges, rushes in the wetter areas, nutrushes, slender fimbry, and hairy fimbry. Supplemental planting of native understory species may or may not be needed depending on condition of the seed bank and the goals and objectives of the land manager. If pine species other than longleaf were originally established the plantation can be shifted to longleaf either gradually with selective cutting, prescribed burning and longleaf seedling planting, or all at once with a clearcut, site prep and longleaf plantation establishment.

If shifted from a pasture, cropland, or abandoned field state, the understory vegetation will likely be determined by the existing vegetation prior to tree planting and the field preparation that took place. If no permanent vegetation was present (i.e. crop field) then annual species will likely dominate the understory. If perennial grasses were present (i.e. pasture or abandoned field) then these grasses may return along with other annual species occasionally accompanied by green briar and blackberry. All understory species will start to diminish as the tree canopy closes unless thinning is utilized to manage for understory vegetation. More desirable native grasses and forbs will not be likely to appear from the seedbank if there is any history of cultivation. Supplemental planting will be necessary if native understory species restoration is a goal for the property.

Planted longleaf pine - native grass states will need to be seeded or plugged to native warm season grasses such as big and little bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, wiregrass and other native species that are commonly utilized as wildlife habitat. In these cases, tree canopy closure must be managed to allow for adequate light for understory vegetation to thrive.

State 5
Pine Plantation

Loblolly and slash are the pine species most often planted in the area to produce a marketable wood product. Subsequent management will be in keeping with long-term and interim objectives and may include vegetation management with prescribed burning, and periodic stand thinning.

Community 5.1
Pine Plantation

Figure 16. Fig. 9. Pine plantation

The southern U.S. is rich with a variety of pine species, primarily loblolly, shortleaf, slash and longleaf (Pinus taeda, P. echinata, P. elliottii and P. palustris) (Fox et al., 2004). Pine forest community (plantation state) is recognized when the canopy of the forest stand becomes dominated with southern pine native to the Atlantic Coast Flatwoods. Each species is diverse in its growth, development, and product, while sharing some very basic commonalities. Southern pines are pioneer species that regenerate naturally on disturbed sites, where fire has occurred or old croplands have been abandoned.

Southern pines can be managed in a variety of different ways and for a variety of different purposes in the Atlantic Coast Flatwoods MLRA including timber production, wildlife habitat, scenic beauty, carbon sequestration, biomass production, pine straw production, silvopasture, or a combination of purposes. Pine plantations in the Atlantic Coast Flatwoods are primarily managed for pulpwood or higher value products such as saw and veneer logs or utility poles using even aged management that ultimately calls of clear cutting and re-planting at the end of a specified rotation age. Precommercial thinning may occur as early as 5-10 years after stand establishment and commercial thinning may occur at approximately 10 year intervals, usually producing pulpwood. Pine plantations usually undergo a final harvest between 25 and 45 years of age, but shorter rotation crops of 15 to 18 years are also considered. Silviculture practices include but are not limited to: site preparation, prescribed burning, tree planting, weed control, fertilization, and thinning (Alig et al., 2002). Alternative management prescriptions have been developed to allow for increased plant diversity, especially in the understory, improved wildlife habitat, and uneven aged and mixed species overstories. Essentially this alternative management prescriptions call for heavier thinning, more frequent prescribed burning and either planting or allowing natural regeneration of native grasses, forbs, shrubs and pine and/or hardwood trees. A proportion of the mature trees are allowed to reach much greater age than typical rotation ages for timber management purposes, creating greater variety of tree sizes and canopy structure. The Pine Plantation state can be managed in a way to restore either the Planted Longleaf Pine-Native Grass state (state 4) or the Mixed Pine-Hardwood state (state 2).

The pine plantation state can be maintained indefinitely unless a major disturbance such as a crown fire, inclement weather condition, pest, or disease contributes to eliminating the stand. Hardwood tree species will encroach after any thinning operation and must be controlled with prescribed fire, herbicides or a combination of both if a pure pine stand is desired.

State 6
Cropland or Pasture

If a pine plantation is not established, the most common agricultural use of the site is pasture or hay production. Fruit and vegetable production, and row crops can be regionally important.

Community 6.1
Cropland or Pasture

Figure 17. Fig. 10. Cropland or pasture

The introduced, warm-season perennials, bahiagrass and bermudagrass are the species primary planted for grazing and hay on this ecological site. Bahiagrass is highly tolerant of saturated soils, while most bermudagrass varieties are not adapted to extended periods of standing water or poorly drained conditions. On less intensively managed fields, other warm season grass species are also found, and may become predominant. These include dallisgrass, carpetgrass, broadleaf signalgrass, and crabgrass. Weedy species commonly occur, and they can constitute a significant portion of the plant biomass when conditions become less favorable for the preferred forage species. Some of the species found include Carolina horsenettle, dogfennel, broomsedge bluestem, dock, bitter sneezeweed, and Johnsongrass. Management- and environment-related factors that can contribute to poor forage growth and favorable conditions for weed establishment and growth in pasture and hayland include decreased soil fertility, low soil pH, improper grazing or harvest management, and extended drought.

Although permanent grass sods and pine plantations are the most common agricultural use, cotton, peanuts, corn, and fruit and vegetables are grown on these soils. Cultivation associated with annual cropping systems significantly depletes the understory seed bank commonly found with state 1.

State 7
Abandoned Old Field

When management or regular disturbances cease on row crop or forage land, weedy and woody species become established.

Community 7.1
Abandoned Old Field

Figure 18. Fig. 11. Abandoned old field

The abandoned field state is recognized by secondary plant community succession. After agricultural practices have ceased, weedy small herbaceous plants dominate the site. This stage of succession can include hairy crabgrass, annual ragweed, poorjoe, Indian goosegrass, bermudagrass, yellow nutsedge, nutgrass, Carolina desert-chicory, henbit deadnettle, java-bean, man of the earth morninglory and cypressvine morningglory. Taller weedy plants such as spiny amaranth, camphorweed, canadian horseweed, dog fennel, yankeeweed, canada goldenrod and american pokeweed become evident generally within the first year or two. After about 3 to 5 years partridge pea and grasses such as broomsedge bluestem and purpletop tridens can dominate. Along the edge of wet areas chalky bluestem can be very evident. As the soil is modified with vegetation later succession of shrubs and trees will appear and begin to shade out some of the earliest weedy vegetation. Common persimmon, sweetgum, eastern red cedar, loblolly pine, slash pine and longleaf pine will appear if seed sources are adequate. Fire exclusion will result in a hardwood or a mixed hardwood pine community including southern red oak, darlington oak, runner oak, water oak, and other hardwoods. More well drained sites can include pignut hickory and mockernut hickory. If fire is introduced and managed the longleaf pine plant community should dominate with its rich diversity of understory and especially ground cover plants which will include herbaceous, woody, legumes, composites, ericads, grasses and others.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Triggers – Decrease in Fire Frequency. When fire is removed from the system for more than five years, the site may begin transitioning to a mixed pine/hardwood forest state. Frequent, low-intensity fire is the dominant natural ecological force. Absence of fire beyond the natural range of return intervals (2-3 years) results in both rapid and long term changes of vegetation. Communities will show evidence of change after only a few years (3) without fire. Encroachment by hardwood trees and other pines is reversible for several years, but eventually becomes irreversible without persistent management and costly methods (Walker and Silletti, 2006). Using dormant season burns exclusively will reduce wiregrass. This results in reduction of fine fuels, lowering fire intensity potentially allowing survival of hardwood species. Exclusion of fire allows accumulation of litter which hinders longleaf pine germination as longleaf pine requires an exposed mineral soil free of surface litter for germination. In addition, due to competition seedlings will not elongate. Threshold – With lack of fire, hardwood species exceed 3-inch basal diameter and fire mortality rates decline.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

This restoration pathway is valid for a tract that transitioned to state 2 from state 1 only. It does not apply to areas that transitioned to state 2 from any other state (4). Suitable restoration techniques depend on the degree of ecosystem degradation, including soil seed bank depletion. Effective hardwood and mid-story shrub removal may be accomplished by mechanical means and use of selective herbicides. Removal of over story hardwoods significantly improves regeneration and growth of longleaf seedlings, and increases understory herbaceous vegetation. Once sufficient fine fuels exist, a prescribed burn should be conducted (March to July). Burning August-September should be avoided to minimize mortality to young longleaf pine seedlings. Once longleaf pine regeneration has been reestablished, and hardwood competition is minimal, a two-year dormant season burn will minimize fuel accumulation and should control mid story species. To expedite restoration to the reference plant community, periodic growing season burns should be included in the fire regime. Efforts to establish herbaceous understory species may need to be undertaken if soil seed bank is severely depleted. Sites dominated by longleaf pine with native understory (Moderately degraded-R2A) - Frequent growing-season fires are needed to adequately control competing woody plants on upland sites with better soils. As on flatwoods sites, frequent growing season fires over many years are required to reduce the hardwood rootstocks (Boyer, 1990a). As in other longleaf pine ecosystem types, a series of dormant-season fires may be necessary to gradually reduce fuel levels before growing season burning begins. Where wiregrass components are evident in the understory, selective herbicide application may be favored over mechanical reduction of non-merchantable woody species in readjusting species composition and dominance (Boyer, 1991). Sites dominated by other species (Severely degraded-Closed Canopy)- Repeated and prolonged treatment with prescribed fire should eventually reduce the abundance and cover of woody plants in the understory. It is probable that at least a portion of the native understory still exists in the soil seed bank or as suppressed individuals (Varner et. al., 2000). Therefore, restoration would begin with burning to reduce fuel and initiate control of woody shrubs and hardwoods. If timber harvest is not a practical option felling/girdling or herbicide may be used to reduce unwanted mid-story and overstory pine and hardwood trees. In summary, areas that are severely degraded may require growing season/dormant season annual fires, mechanical removal and herbicide treatment of an encroaching midstory and overstory pine and hardwood trees. To facilitate restoration, native plantings of desired species are recommended. The time it takes to restore the reference plant community will depend in large part on the intensity of the restoration effort. Relatively aggressive approaches that include use of herbicides, mechanical removal of competing species, and replanting of desirable species can shorten the process. However, depending in part on the degree of site disturbance, restoration to the reference plant community may take 20 years or more after appropriate management has been implemented.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Triggers - Persistence and increases in hardwood cover causes a decrease in herbaceous understory vegetation Threshold – 100% canopy cover dominated by hardwoods and loss of longleaf pine from the state; loss of herbaceous understory species from the state, including seed bank depletion.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

Clear cut. Mechanical and chemical control of remaining vegetation. Site prep (K-G blade, root rake, and disking) for grass and tree establishment. Plant native grasses and forbs. Plant longleaf pine spaced to allow grass establishment.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

Clear cut. Mechanical and chemical control of remaining vegetation. Site preparation (K-G blade, root rake, and disking) for grass and tree establishment. Plant native grasses and forbs. Plant longleaf pine spaced to allow grass establishment.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 5

Clear cut. Mechanical and chemical control of remaining vegetation. Site preparation (K-G blade, root rake, and disking) for tree establishment. Plant pines (slash or loblolly) at recommended rates.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 6

Clear cut. Mechanical and chemical control of remaining vegetation. Site preparation (K-G blade, root rake, and disking) for pasture or crop establishment. Remove debris and stumps. Prepare seedbed and establish row crop or pasture species.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

Triggers – Decrease in Fire Frequency. When fire is removed from the site for more than five years the site may begin transitioning to a mixed pine / hardwood forest state. Frequent, low- intensity fire is the dominant natural ecological force. Absence of fire beyond the natural range of return intervals (2-3 years) results in both rapid and long term changes of vegetation. Communities will show evidence of change after only a few years (3) without fire. Encroachment by hardwood trees and other pines is reversible for several years, but eventually becomes irreversible without costly, persistent management. Using dormant season burns exclusively will alter understory composition. Research has demonstrated that wiregrass produces seed only during years that the plant has been exposed to a growing season fire. Without reproduction and the subsequent regeneration of wiregrass, this important fine-fuels component of the system will eventually decrease. If this occurs, the resulting lower intensity fires are more likely to allow hardwood species to escape control. Exclusion of fire allows an over-accumulation of litter which hinders longleaf pine germination because longleaf pine requires an exposed mineral soil free of surface litter for germination. In addition, due to competition longleaf seedlings will not elongate. Threshold – With lack of fire, hardwood species exceed 3-inch basal diameter and fire mortality rates decline.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 4

Selective thinning of trees, preferably to create .25 - .5 acre gaps. Mechanical or chemical control of any understory vegetation. Plant container-grown longleaf pine seedlings in the gaps. Plant native grasses, and if desired, native forbs. Begin prescribed burning every 2 to 3 years during the growing season as fine fuels are adequate to carry a fire. The Longleaf Pine Ecosystem Restoration Project (LPER) describes how mono-culture pine plantations on select Georgia State Lands were restored to healthy longleaf pine-wiregrass ecosystems (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, 2007). The study sites in the project correspond to state 4 in the State and Transition Model. Conversion of plantations is a multi-step restoration process that may involve aggressive application of adaptive management practices such as planting native vegetation and continued monitoring and management to ensure overall success. Though the table above shows lower longleaf pine survival than predicted, the overall project was successful in developing effective strategies for converting plantations to relatively diverse, multi-aged longleaf pine forests. These strategies include: initiating gradual canopy conversion through thinning to create small gaps, reducing hardwood encroachment through the use of prescribed fire and herbicide application, utilizing prescribed fire to restore native groundcover and promote fine fuels, and acquiring wiregrass seed from native stands through private landowner incentives.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 4

Clear cut. Mechanical and chemical control of remaining vegetation. Site preparation (K-G blade, root rake, and disking) for grass and tree establishment. Plant native grasses and forbs. Plant longleaf pine spaced to allow grass establishment.

Transition T7B
State 6 to 4

Mechanical and/or chemical control of existing vegetation. Site preparation (KG-blade, root rake, and/or disking) for tree establishment. If transitioning to state 5, plant pines (slash or loblolly) at recommended rates. If transitioning to state 4, plant native grasses. Plant longleaf pine spaced to allow grass establishment.

Transition T7B
State 6 to 5

Mechanical and/or chemical control of existing vegetation. Site preparation (KG-blade, root rake, and disking) for tree establishment. Plant pines (slash or loblolly) at recommended rates.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 7

Management ceases. Early successional species become established.

Transition T7A
State 7 to 3

Lack of management that includes vegetation control, allowing pines and hardwoods to become established.

Transition T7B
State 7 to 4

Mechanical and/or chemical control of existing vegetation. Site prep (KG-blade, root rake, and/or disking) for tree establishment. If transitioning to state 5, plant pines (slash or loblolly) at recommended rates. If transitioning to state 4, plant native grasses. Plant longleaf pines spaced to allow grass establishment. Development of restoration techniques for upland sites once used for agriculture or intensive forestry has begun only recently. It is unlikely that many of the native understory grasses and forbs survived intensive soil disturbance; however, there is a large soil seed bank of herbaceous weeds that must be controlled. Annual herbicide application to control non-native weedy invasion such as Bermuda grass (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CYDA" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Cynodon dactylon</i></a>) may be necessary, prior to native plantings. Brush control may require mechanical as well as selective herbicide applications followed by the introduction of both dormant season and growing season fires over long periods of time. More information will be forthcoming as information becomes available.

Transition T7B
State 7 to 5

Mechanical and/or chemical control of existing vegetation. Site prep (KG-blade, root rake, and/or disking) for tree establishment. If transitioning to state 5, plant pines (slash or loblolly) at recommended rates. If transitioning to state 4, plant native grasses. Plant longleaf pines spaced to allow grass establishment. Development of restoration techniques for upland sites once used for agriculture or intensive forestry has begun only recently. It is unlikely that many of the native understory grasses and forbs survived intensive soil disturbance; however, there is a large soil seed bank of herbaceous weeds that must be controlled. Annual herbicide application to control non-native weedy invasion such as Bermuda grass (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CYDA" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Cynodon dactylon</i></a>) may be necessary, prior to native plantings. Brush control may require mechanical as well as selective herbicide applications followed by the introduction of both dormant season and growing season fires over long periods of time. More information will be forthcoming as information becomes available.

Restoration pathway R7A
State 7 to 6

Chemical control of vegetation. Mechanical control where necessary for woody species. Tillage as necessary. Establish row crop or pasture species.