Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Dry, High Base-Saturation, Upland, Oak - Hickory Woodland
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
Select a state
Management practices/drivers
Select a transition or restoration pathway
- Transition T1 More details
- Transition T2 More details
- Transition T4 More details
- Restoration pathway R1 More details
- Transition T6 More details
- Transition T5 More details
- Restoration pathway R2 More details
- Transition T3 More details
- Restoration pathway R3 More details
-
No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
Select a state
Description
The open-canopy woodland state of this site is one where trees over 5 meters high cover less than 60 percent of the woodland site overall. This low density overstory canopy cover allows for substantial understory vegetation development, either shrubs, herbs and grasses, or both. This woodland state is the reference state on this ecological site because the woodland state is more resilient than the closed canopy forest. Dense closed canopy conditions lead to significant moisture stress on this site and significantly increases the risk that a disturbance vector will significantly reduce (or eliminate) overstory cover.
The database section for grasses / herbs only allows 20 species and the list for this phase is longer than 20. Hence the herbaceous species list is provided here:
• Asclepias viridiflora (green milkweed)
• Andropogon gerardii (big bluestem)
• Aquilegia canadensis (wild columbine)
• Aralia nudicaulis (wild sarsaparilla)
• Asclepias verticillata (whorled milkweed)
• Asplenium platyneuron (ebony spleenwort)
• Aster oblongifolius (aromatic aster)
• Bouteloua curtipendulas (side-oats gramma; tall gramma)
• Carex communis (a sedge)
• Carex pensylvanica (Pennsylvania sedge)
• Desmodium spp. (tick-trefoil)
• Hieracium venosum (rattlesnake weed)
• Hispidissimums (false gromwell)
• Lespedeza spp. (bush clovers)
• Lithospermum canescens (hoary pucccoon)
• Lithospermum latifoliums (American gromwell)
• Lysimachia quadrifolia (whorled loosestrife)
• Onosmodium molle ssp.
• Panicum virgatum (switch grass)
• Polygonatum biflorum (Solomon's-seal)
• Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem)
• Senecio obovatus (groundsel)
• Smilacina racemosa (false Solomon's-seal)
• Solidago bicolor (silver-rod)
• Sorghastrum nutans (Indian grass)
• Uvularia sessilifolia (wild-oats)
Characteristics and indicators
This site typically has an overstory in which hickory is a major component, has few (if any) ericads, and has a much greater diversity of understory and herbaceous species than it’s piedmont-felsic and Triassic counterparts. The composition of the shrub layer is perhaps the most diagnostic characteristic (Virginia DCR, 2016; Zimmerman et al., 2012). Characteristic shrubs include Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Juniperus virginiana (red-cedar), Cercis canadensis (redbud), Carpinus caroliniana (hornbeam), Corylus cornuta (beaked hazelnut), Amelanchier arborea (shadbush), Rhus aromatica (fragrant sumac), Rhus glabra (smooth sumac), Celtis tenuifolia (dwarf hackberry), Viburnum rafinesquianum (downy arrowwood), and Ostrya virginiana (hophornbeam). Ericaceous shrubs are uncommon, although Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel) is common in some areas. Representative trees include Quercus alba (white oak), Betula lenta (sweet birch), Carya cordiformis (shellbark hickory), Celtis occidentalis (hackberry), Acer rubrum (red maple), Acer saccharum (sugar maple), Quercus montana (chestnut oak), Quercus velutina (black oak), Quercus rubra (northern red oak), Quercus muhlenbergii (yellow oak), Carya glabra (pignut hickory), Fraxinus americana (white ash), and Tilia americana (basswood) (Zimmerman et al., 2012).
Resilience management
The woodland state requires periodic low-intensity disturbance to maintain resilience. Periodic prescribed fire, brush management, and/or partial overstory thinning (crop tree release) are common practices that will facilitate persistence and resilience of the woodland state
Dominant plant species
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
sugar maple (Acer saccharum), tree
sweet birch (Betula lenta), tree
bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis), tree
pignut hickory (Carya glabra), tree
common hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
chestnut oak (Quercus montana), tree
chinquapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii), tree
northern red oak (Quercus rubra), tree
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
American basswood (Tilia americana), tree
common serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), shrub
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), shrub
dwarf hackberry (Celtis tenuifolia), shrub
eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), shrub
flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), shrub
beaked hazelnut (Corylus cornuta), shrub
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), shrub
mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), shrub
hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), shrub
fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), shrub
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
downy arrowwood (Viburnum rafinesqueanum), shrub
Submodel
Description
The closed canopy forest state of this ecological site is similar to the woodland state but with a closed canopy overstory, a more well developed midstory of trees including suppressed and intermediate crown classes, and less understory vegetation. As the time since last disturbance increases, the stocking of more shade tolerant and fire intolerant species (e.g. red maple) will increase, leading to increased moisture competition and stress.
The database section for grasses / herbs only allows 20 species and the list for this phase is longer than 20. Hence the herbaceous species list is provided here:
• Asclepias viridiflora (green milkweed)
• Andropogon gerardii (big bluestem)
• Aquilegia canadensis (wild columbine)
• Aralia nudicaulis (wild sarsaparilla)
• Asclepias verticillata (whorled milkweed)
• Asplenium platyneuron (ebony spleenwort)
• Aster oblongifolius (aromatic aster)
• Bouteloua curtipendulas (side-oats gramma; tall gramma)
• Carex communis (a sedge)
• Carex pensylvanica (Pennsylvania sedge)
• Desmodium spp. (tick-trefoil)
• Hieracium venosum (rattlesnake weed)
• Hispidissimums (false gromwell)
• Lespedeza spp. (bush clovers)
• Lithospermum canescens (hoary pucccoon)
• Lithospermum latifoliums (American gromwell)
• Lysimachia quadrifolia (whorled loosestrife)
• Onosmodium molle ssp.
• Panicum virgatum (switch grass)
• Polygonatum biflorum (Solomon's-seal)
• Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem)
• Senecio obovatus (groundsel)
• Smilacina racemosa (false Solomon's-seal)
• Solidago bicolor (silver-rod)
• Sorghastrum nutans (Indian grass)
• Uvularia sessilifolia (wild-oats)
Resilience management
The resilience of healthy vegetation communities on this site will be facilitated by following restoration pathway R1.
Dominant plant species
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
sugar maple (Acer saccharum), tree
sweet birch (Betula lenta), tree
bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis), tree
pignut hickory (Carya glabra), tree
common hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
chestnut oak (Quercus montana), tree
chinquapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii), tree
northern red oak (Quercus rubra), tree
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
American basswood (Tilia americana), tree
common serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), shrub
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), shrub
dwarf hackberry (Celtis tenuifolia), shrub
eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), shrub
flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), shrub
beaked hazelnut (Corylus cornuta), shrub
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), shrub
mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), shrub
hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), shrub
fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), shrub
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
downy arrowwood (Viburnum rafinesqueanum), shrub
Submodel
Description
The brush state on this site is a transient state which can be arrived at from at least two different pathways. It can be a normal step in classic succession from the very early succession meadow state through the shrub state towards a woodland condition, or, alternatively, it can result from a disturbance vector that reduces or eliminates overstory tree cover and releases the understory woody shrub component. In either case, it's occupation of a site is typically transient with the normal successional pathway progressing out of shrubland towards woodland.
The database section for grasses / herbs only allows 20 species and the list for this phase is longer than 20. Hence the herbaceous species list is provided here:
• Asclepias viridiflora (green milkweed)
• Andropogon gerardii (big bluestem)
• Aquilegia canadensis (wild columbine)
• Aralia nudicaulis (wild sarsaparilla)
• Asclepias verticillata (whorled milkweed)
• Asplenium platyneuron (ebony spleenwort)
• Aster oblongifolius (aromatic aster)
• Bouteloua curtipendulas (side-oats gramma; tall gramma)
• Carex communis (a sedge)
• Carex pensylvanica (Pennsylvania sedge)
• Desmodium spp. (tick-trefoil)
• Hieracium venosum (rattlesnake weed)
• Hispidissimums (false gromwell)
• Lespedeza spp. (bush clovers)
• Lithospermum canescens (hoary pucccoon)
• Lithospermum latifoliums (American gromwell)
• Lysimachia quadrifolia (whorled loosestrife)
• Onosmodium molle ssp.
• Panicum virgatum (switch grass)
• Polygonatum biflorum (Solomon's-seal)
• Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem)
• Senecio obovatus (groundsel)
• Smilacina racemosa (false Solomon's-seal)
• Solidago bicolor (silver-rod)
• Sorghastrum nutans (Indian grass)
• Uvularia sessilifolia (wild-oats)
Resilience management
Without frequent disturbance, this state is transient in the normal successional pathway. Frequent prescribed fire, prescribed grazing, and/or brush management are necessary to facilitate the persistence of the brush state.
Dominant plant species
common serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), shrub
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), shrub
dwarf hackberry (Celtis tenuifolia), shrub
eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), shrub
flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), shrub
beaked hazelnut (Corylus cornuta), shrub
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), shrub
mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), shrub
hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), shrub
fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), shrub
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
downy arrowwood (Viburnum rafinesqueanum), shrub
Submodel
Description
The meadow state on this site is a transient state which can be arrived at from at least two different pathways. It can be a normal step in classic succession from the very early succession meadow state through the shrub state towards a woodland condition, or, alternatively, it can result from a disturbance vector that reduces or eliminates most or all woody cover including overstory tree cover and the understory woody shrub component. In either case, it's occupation of a site is typically transient with the normal successional pathway progressing out of meadow towards shrubland and then woodland.
The database section for grasses / herbs only allows 20 species and the list for this phase is longer than 20. Hence the herbaceous species list is provided here:
• Asclepias viridiflora (green milkweed)
• Andropogon gerardii (big bluestem)
• Aquilegia canadensis (wild columbine)
• Aralia nudicaulis (wild sarsaparilla)
• Asclepias verticillata (whorled milkweed)
• Asplenium platyneuron (ebony spleenwort)
• Aster oblongifolius (aromatic aster)
• Bouteloua curtipendulas (side-oats gramma; tall gramma)
• Carex communis (a sedge)
• Carex pensylvanica (Pennsylvania sedge)
• Desmodium spp. (tick-trefoil)
• Hieracium venosum (rattlesnake weed)
• Hispidissimums (false gromwell)
• Lespedeza spp. (bush clovers)
• Lithospermum canescens (hoary pucccoon)
• Lithospermum latifoliums (American gromwell)
• Lysimachia quadrifolia (whorled loosestrife)
• Onosmodium molle ssp.
• Panicum virgatum (switch grass)
• Polygonatum biflorum (Solomon's-seal)
• Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem)
• Senecio obovatus (groundsel)
• Smilacina racemosa (false Solomon's-seal)
• Solidago bicolor (silver-rod)
• Sorghastrum nutans (Indian grass)
• Uvularia sessilifolia (wild-oats)
Resilience management
Without frequent disturbance, this state is transient in the normal successional pathway. Frequent prescribed fire, prescribed grazing, and/or brush management are necessary to facilitate the persistence of the meadow state.
Submodel
Mechanism
The transition from woodland to closed canopy forest is caused by a lack of disturbance.
Constraints to recovery
This transition typically causes an increase in shade tolerant species and species that are not fire-adapted. These species are not well adapted to the woodland reference state because the woodland reference state requires periodic disturbance to persist.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
Mechanism
The transition from the woodland state to the brush state will occur as the result of any disturbance that reduces overstory tree cover but does not similarly reduce understory woody vegetation cover. Examples include tree disease, tree pests, windthrow, and timber harvest.
Constraints to recovery
Dense shrub cover can impede regeneration of shade intolerant and fire tolerant overstory tree species that are dominant on the woodland state.
Context dependence
This transition will only occur when shrubs and tree seedlings are already well established beneath the overstory tree canopy prior to release.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
The transition from the woodland state to the meadow state will occur as the result of any disturbance that reduces (or eliminates) all (most) woody vegetation cover including both trees and shrubs. Examples include tree disease, tree pests, windthrow, and timber harvest.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
The restoration of the reference woodland state from the closed canopy woodland state is facilitated by partial removal of the overstory and the introduction of periodic low-intensity fire to control competition and maintain shade intolerant and fire adapted species. Removal of trees should focus on removing shade tolerant and fire intolerant species. Brush management and prescribed grazing can also facilitate this restoration pathway.
Context dependence
The potential success of this restoration pathway is dependent on the presence of sufficient tree stocking of shade intolerant and fire tolerant species.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
The transition from the closed canopy state to the brush state will occur as the result of any disturbance that reduces overstory tree cover but does not similarly reduce understory woody vegetation cover. Examples include tree disease, tree pests, windthrow, and timber harvest.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
Mechanism
The transition from the closed canopy forest state to the meadow state will occur as the result of any disturbance that reduces (or eliminates) all (most) woody vegetation cover including both trees and shrubs. Examples include tree disease, tree pests, windthrow, and timber harvest.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
The brush state will likely succeed to the woodland state without any management intervention, but the management practices listed below will facilitate the process.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
This transition from the brush state to the meadow state could occur from any disturbance that reduces (or eliminates) all (most) woody vegetation cover including both trees and shrubs. Examples include disease, pests, windthrow, and timber harvest.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
The meadow state will likely succeed to the brush state without any management intervention, but the management practices listed below will facilitate the process.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
|
|
Herbaceous Weed Control |
Model keys
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