Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Dry, Triassic, Upland, Mixed Oak Heath / Oak-Pine Woodland
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
Select a state
Management practices/drivers
Select a transition or restoration pathway
- Transition T1 More details
- Transition T2 More details
- Transition T4 More details
- Restoration pathway R1 More details
- Transition T6 More details
- Transition T5 More details
- Restoration pathway R2 More details
- Transition T3 More details
- Restoration pathway R3 More details
-
No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
Select a state
Description
The open-canopy woodland state of this site is one where trees over 5 meters high cover less than 60 percent of the woodland site overall. This low density overstory canopy cover allows for substantial understory vegetation development, either shrubs, herbs and grasses, or both. This woodland state is the reference state on this ecological site because the woodland state is more resilient than the closed canopy forest. Dense closed canopy conditions lead to significant moisture stress on this site and significantly increases the risk that a disturbance vector will significantly reduce (or eliminate) overstory cover.
Characteristics and indicators
The site is characterized by dominance of Quercus montana (chestnut oak) or Quercus alba (white oak); presence of Castanea dentata (American chestnut) sprouts with Quercus montana; or oak (and oak-pine) forests dominated by some combination of Quercus montana, Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak), and Quercus velutina (black oak) and Castanea dentate sprouts. Ericaceous shrubs are strongly diagnostic. Examples include Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel), Rhododendron calendulaceum (flame azalea), and Ilex montana (mountain holly). Hickory is largely absent from the overstory (USNVC 2.01, 2016).
Resilience management
The woodland state requires periodic low-intensity disturbance to maintain resilience. Periodic prescribed fire, brush management, and/or partial overstory thinning (crop tree release) are common practices that will facilitate persistence and resilience of the woodland state.
Dominant plant species
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
sweet birch (Betula lenta), tree
gray birch (Betula populifolia), tree
American chestnut (Castanea dentata), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), tree
Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens), tree
red pine (Pinus resinosa), tree
pitch pine (Pinus rigida), tree
eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), tree
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), tree
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), tree
bear oak (Quercus ilicifolia), tree
chestnut oak (Quercus montana), tree
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
sassafras (Sassafras albidum), tree
sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina), shrub
black huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata), shrub
mountain holly (Ilex montana), shrub
mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
rhododendron (Rhododendron), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium), shrub
highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), shrub
Blue Ridge blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum), shrub
mapleleaf viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium), shrub
wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), grass
fibrousroot sedge (Carex communis), grass
Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica), grass
rosy sedge (Carex rosea), grass
striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata), grass
cup lichen (Cladonia), grass
reindeer lichen (Cladina), grass
moccasin flower (Cypripedium acaule), grass
poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), grass
wavy hairgrass (Deschampsia flexuosa), grass
trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens), grass
eastern teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens), grass
lespedeza (Lespedeza), grass
Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), grass
narrowleaf cowwheat (Melampyrum lineare), grass
mountain ricegrass (Piptatheropsis pungens), grass
polytrichum moss (Polytrichum), grass
western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), grass
northern dewberry (Rubus flagellaris), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
Submodel
Description
The closed canopy forest state of this ecological site is similar to the woodland state but with a closed canopy overstory, a more well developed midstory of trees including suppressed and intermediate crown classes, and less understory vegetation. As the time since last disturbance increases, the stocking of more shade tolerant and fire intolerant species (e.g. red maple) will increase, leading to increased moisture competition and stress.
Resilience management
The resilience of healthy vegetation communities on this site will be facilitated by following restoration pathway R1.
Dominant plant species
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
sweet birch (Betula lenta), tree
gray birch (Betula populifolia), tree
American chestnut (Castanea dentata), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), tree
Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens), tree
red pine (Pinus resinosa), tree
pitch pine (Pinus rigida), tree
eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), tree
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), tree
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), tree
bear oak (Quercus ilicifolia), tree
chestnut oak (Quercus montana), tree
black oak (Quercus velutina), tree
sassafras (Sassafras albidum), tree
black huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata), shrub
mountain holly (Ilex montana), shrub
mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
rhododendron (Rhododendron), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium), shrub
highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), shrub
Blue Ridge blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum), shrub
mapleleaf viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium), shrub
wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), grass
fibrousroot sedge (Carex communis), grass
Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica), grass
rosy sedge (Carex rosea), grass
striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata), grass
cup lichen (Cladonia), grass
reindeer lichen (Cladina), grass
moccasin flower (Cypripedium acaule), grass
poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), grass
wavy hairgrass (Deschampsia flexuosa), grass
trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens), grass
eastern teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens), grass
Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), grass
narrowleaf cowwheat (Melampyrum lineare), grass
western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), grass
Submodel
Description
The brush state on this site is a transient state which can be arrived at from at least two different pathways. It can be a normal step in classic succession from the very early succession meadow state through the shrub state towards a woodland condition, or, alternatively, it can result from a disturbance vector that reduces or eliminates overstory tree cover and releases the understory woody shrub component. In either case, it's occupation of a site is typically transient with the normal successional pathway progressing out of shrubland towards woodland.
Resilience management
Without frequent disturbance, this state is transient in the normal successional pathway. Frequent prescribed fire, prescribed grazing, and/or brush management are necessary to facilitate the persistence of the brush state.
Dominant plant species
sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina), shrub
black huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata), shrub
mountain holly (Ilex montana), shrub
mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
rhododendron (Rhododendron), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium), shrub
highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), shrub
Blue Ridge blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum), shrub
mapleleaf viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium), shrub
wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), grass
fibrousroot sedge (Carex communis), grass
Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica), grass
rosy sedge (Carex rosea), grass
striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata), grass
cup lichen (Cladonia), grass
reindeer lichen (Cladina), grass
moccasin flower (Cypripedium acaule), grass
poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), grass
wavy hairgrass (Deschampsia flexuosa), grass
trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens), grass
eastern teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens), grass
lespedeza (Lespedeza), grass
Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), grass
narrowleaf cowwheat (Melampyrum lineare), grass
mountain ricegrass (Piptatheropsis pungens), grass
polytrichum moss (Polytrichum), grass
western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), grass
northern dewberry (Rubus flagellaris), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
Submodel
Description
The meadow state on this site is a transient state which can be arrived at from at least two different pathways. It can be a normal step in classic succession from the very early succession meadow state through the shrub state towards a woodland condition, or, alternatively, it can result from a disturbance vector that reduces or eliminates most or all woody cover including overstory tree cover and the understory woody shrub component. In either case, it's occupation of a site is typically transient with the normal successional pathway progressing out of meadow towards shrubland and then woodland.
Resilience management
Without frequent disturbance, this state is transient in the normal successional pathway. Frequent prescribed fire, prescribed grazing, and/or brush management are necessary to facilitate the persistence of the meadow state.
Dominant plant species
wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), grass
fibrousroot sedge (Carex communis), grass
Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica), grass
rosy sedge (Carex rosea), grass
striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata), grass
cup lichen (Cladonia), grass
reindeer lichen (Cladina), grass
moccasin flower (Cypripedium acaule), grass
poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), grass
wavy hairgrass (Deschampsia flexuosa), grass
trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens), grass
eastern teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens), grass
lespedeza (Lespedeza), grass
Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), grass
narrowleaf cowwheat (Melampyrum lineare), grass
mountain ricegrass (Piptatheropsis pungens), grass
polytrichum moss (Polytrichum), grass
western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), grass
northern dewberry (Rubus flagellaris), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
Submodel
Mechanism
The transition from woodland to closed canopy forest is caused by a lack of disturbance.
Constraints to recovery
This transition typically causes an increase in shade tolerant species and species that are not fire-adapted. These species are not well adapted to the woodland reference state because the woodland reference state requires periodic disturbance to persist.
Mechanism
The transition from the woodland state to the brush state will occur as the result of any disturbance that reduces overstory tree cover but does not similarly reduce understory woody vegetation cover. Examples include tree disease, tree pests, windthrow, and timber harvest.
Constraints to recovery
Dense shrub cover can impede regeneration of shade intolerant and fire tolerant overstory tree species that are dominant on the woodland state.
Context dependence
This transition will only occur when shrubs and tree seedlings are already well established beneath the overstory tree canopy prior to release.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
The transition from the woodland state to the meadow state will occur as the result of any disturbance that reduces (or eliminates) all (most) woody vegetation cover including both trees and shrubs. Examples include tree disease, tree pests, windthrow, and timber harvest.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
the restoration of the reference woodland state from the closed canopy woodland state is facilitated by partial removal of the overstory and the introduction of periodic low-intensity fire to control competition and maintain shade intolerant and fire adapted species. Removal of trees should focus on removing shade tolerant and fire intolerant species. Brush management and prescribed grazing can also facilitate this restoration pathway.
Context dependence
The potential success of this restoration pathway is dependent on the presence of sufficient tree stocking of shade intolerant and fire tolerant species.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
The transition from the closed canopy state to the brush state will occur as the result of any disturbance that reduces overstory tree cover but does not similarly reduce understory woody vegetation cover. Examples include tree disease, tree pests, windthrow, and timber harvest.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
Mechanism
The transition from the closed canopy forest state to the meadow state will occur as the result of any disturbance that reduces (or eliminates) all (most) woody vegetation cover including both trees and shrubs. Examples include tree disease, tree pests, windthrow, and timber harvest.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
the brush state will likely succeed to the woodland state without any management intervention, but the management practices listed below will facilitate the process.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
The transition from the brush state to the meadow state will occur as the result of any disturbance that reduces (or eliminates) all (most) woody vegetation cover including both trees and shrubs. Examples include tree disease, tree pests, windthrow, and timber harvest.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
Mechanism
The meadow state will likely succeed to the brush state without any management intervention, but the management practices listed below will facilitate the process.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Prescribed Grazing |
|
|
Herbaceous Weed Control |
Model keys
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