State 1
Reference State (minimally-managed)

The site occurs on deep, loamy soils that are poorly- to very poorly-drained. They formed in relatively flat glacial outwash or lakebed sediments with slopes generally less than 8 percent. This site has a seasonally-high water table which affects plant species composition and community dynamics.

Balsam fir and red spruce dominate the overstory, with a productive understory of diverse wetland herbs, shrubs, and mosses. As overstory tree canopy is reduced, herbs and shrubs increase, followed by the re-establishment of thick stands of spruce and fir saplings. About twenty to sixty years following disturbance, a young mature spruce-fir forest emerges and understory species begin to re-establish in the community. After about sixty years without tree removal disturbance, many mature fir trees die out, resulting in a spruce-dominated forest. These mature stands include patches of younger stands resulting from small areas of blowdown or other disturbances.

Characteristics and indicators. Sites occur on moist to saturated mineral soils, usually with a dense carpet of mosses and liverworts. Closed canopies are dominated by spruce (>40% cover), or are rarely more open where red maple or northern white cedar mixes with spruce. Wetland plants occur in the herb layer, usually including cinnamon fern and three-seeded sedge.

Resilience management. Logging, wind and insects, particularly the spruce budworm, drive plant community dynamics on this site. Hurricane force winds and fire are rare on this site, but may result in entire stands reverting to the early herb/shrub phase.

Community 1.1
Spruce - Fir - Cinnamon Fern Forest

This ecological site is a fairly homogeneous forest type dominated by spruce varieties that grow on poorly drained, level to gently sloping sites. Stands often form even-aged blocks hundreds to thousands of acres in size. The even-aged structure likely results from the past influences of spruce-budworm, fire, harvesting, blowdowns, or a combination of multiple factors. Wetland understory herbs and shrubs are sparse, and the forest floor is dominated by a dense carpet of typically Sphagnum mosses.

Sites usually occur along drainages or low flats where soil remains moist throughout the growing season and may be saturated or temporarily flooded in the springtime. The substrate is acidic mineral soil and may be very stony, with or without an organic layer (

Resilience management. Maine Natural Areas Program State Rank: S4 (Apparently Secure) – At fairly low risk of extinction or elimination due to an extensive range and/or many populations or occurrences, but with possible cause for some concern as a result of local recent declines, threats, or other factors. Nearly all known occurrences of this community type in Maine have been harvested in the past, and many have a history of natural disturbance such as fire or spruce-budworm. Large (>1000 acres) examples free from human disturbance are scarce. Forest management with natural regeneration generally does not with result in conversion of this type. Studies on some examples on public and private conservation lands may provide further information on the natural dynamics in these systems. More information is needed statewide to determine if this type should be split into two separate types, reflecting northern and southern Maine variants. (Gawler and Cutko, 2010)

State 2
Semi-natural State

Shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics driven by natural disturbances, processes, and pressures (may have some anthropogenic influences). More research is needed to determine the extent of the Semi-natural state associated with this ecological site.

Community 2.1
Invasiveness and Biological Introductions

Introduction of invasive species, pathogens, and/or pests resulting in shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics. More research is needed to determine the extent of these effects on the semi-natural state associated with this ecological site.

Community 2.2
Cedar - Spruce Seepage Forest

These forests are typically found on gentle, saturated slopes with groundwater seepage, often at the base of slopes near drainage outlets. The substrate is shallow peat or organic material over mineral soil, generally saturated with cold groundwater. Water may emerge to form rivulets or small spring fed brooks, or it may remain under the thick layer of mosses.

Northern white cedar and other conifers form a moderate to dense canopy cover (70-95%), allowing only patchy light to penetrate to the forest floor. Northern white cedar is the dominant tree, though red spruce, white spruce, or black spruce may be co-dominant on some sites. Shrubs and dwarf shrubs are typically sparse but may be more abundant in canopy gaps caused by harvesting or natural disturbance. The herb layer may be extensive, typically >50% cover, and comprised mostly of non-woody species with northern affinities, while the forest floor is characterized by a rich growth of mosses. (Gawler and Cutko, 2010)

Resilience management. Maine Natural Areas Program State Rank: S4 (Apparently Secure) – At fairly low risk of extinction or elimination due to an extensive range and/or many populations or occurrences, but with possible cause for some concern as a result of local recent declines, threats, or other factors. Most known occurrences of this community type in Maine have been harvested in the past, often targeting removal of spruce. Forest management generally does not result in permanent conversion of this type, although questions remain about how to most successfully regenerate cedar. (Gawler and Cutko, 2010)

Community 2.3
Red Maple - Sensitive Fern Swamp

More research and field validation in required to identify the presence of this forest type and it's potential relationship to the reference state.

Inherently similar to Spruce - Fir Cinnamon Fern Forest, Red Maple - Sensitive Fern Swamps are largely dominated by red maple rather than spruce and fir. Red maple dominates the somewhat open to nearly closed canopy (20-90% closure), sometimes with a relatively large component (up to 40% cover) of balsam fir, red spruce, or northern white cedar. The maples may be widely spaced with multiple trunks and arching crowns. The shrub layer is patchy; winterberry is common and various other shrubs may be locally abundant. The herb layer is well developed and dominated by herbs, with dwarf shrubs

Resilience management. Maine Natural Areas Program State Rank: S5 (Secure) - At very low risk or extinction or elimination due to a very extensive range, abundant populations or occurrences, and little to no concern from declines or threats. Maintaining the hydrologic integrity of these stream drainages with upland buffers is key. These swamps typically have had few conflicting uses, although some have been recently harvested. ATV use has been observed at some sites. (Gawler and Cutklo, 2010)

Pathway 2.1a
Community 2.1 to 2.2

introduction of invasive species, pests, and/or pathogens, climate change pressures

Pathway 2.1b
Community 2.1 to 2.3

introduction of invasive species, pests, and/or pathogens, climate change pressures

Pathway 2.2a
Community 2.2 to 2.3

shifts in canopy cover composition, increased/decreased precipitation or flooding events

Pathway 2.3a
Community 2.3 to 2.2

shifts in canopy cover composition, increased/decreased precipitation or flooding events

State 3
Cultural State

Shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics that are primary driven by anthropogenic disturbances and pressures (may have some associated natural influences). More research is needed to determine the extent of the cultural state associated with this ecological site.

Community 3.1
Cultivated Cropland

Community 3.2
Pasture or Hayland

Pathway 3.1a
Community 3.1 to 3.2

mechanical soil disturbance, seeded, planted

Pathway 3.2a
Community 3.2 to 3.1

mechanical soil disturbance, seeded, planted

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

hydrological alteration, climate change pressures, introduction of invasive species, pests, and/or pathogens, shifts in canopy cover composition *Cedar - Spruce Seepage Forests with a substantial amount of red spruce could grade into Spruce - Fir - Cinnamon Fern Forest (reference state), which usually occur on flats.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

heavily logged and cleared, hydrologically altered (surface water drainage), mechanical soil disturbance, seeded and/or planted

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

restoration/management of invasive species, pests, and/or pathogens, patchcut/group selection harvest (red maple/cedar), seeding/planting

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

heavily logged and cleared, hydrologically altered (surface water drainage), mechanical soil disturbance, seeded and/or planted

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

size dependent restoration, seeding/planting, no action taken

Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 2

size dependent restoration, seeding/planting, no action taken