Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Ecological site F136XY660NC

High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation

Last updated: 5/02/2025
Accessed: 08/20/2026

Home / esd CATALOG / MLRA 136X / ecological site F136XY660NC

USC

Metric

General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 136X–Southern Piedmont

This MLRA is on a large piedmont underlain by metamorphic and igneous bedrock. It stretches from north-central Virginia to east-central Alabama, running parallel to the Appalachian highlands to the northwest and the Atlantic coast to the southeast.

MLRA 136 has only subtle climatic differences with MLRA 148 (Northern Piedmont), with which it shares a common geologic origin. This adjacent MLRA sits to the north. Along the fall line, it shares a boundary with MLRA 133A (Southern Coastal Plain), MLRA 137 (Carolina and Georgia Sand Hills), and 133C (Gulf Coastal Plain). Here, unconsolidated Coastal Plain sediments intersect the much older Piedmont bedrock. Along it's northwestern boundary, it sits adjacent to MLRAs 130B (Southern Blue Ridge), 130A (Northern Blue Ridge), and 128 (Southern Appalachian Ridges and Valleys). These MLRAs are distinguished from the Southern Piedmont by topographic and elevational differences, as well as differences in the age, origin, and degree of metamorphism of the underlying bedrock.

Five states are intersected by the MLRA, including North Carolina (29 percent), Georgia (27 percent), Virginia (20 percent), South Carolina (17 percent), and Alabama (7 percent). The MLRA extent makes up about 63,720 square miles (165,034 square kilometers).

MLRA PHYSIOGRAPHY
The landscape is generally rolling to hilly, with a well-defined drainage pattern. Streams have dissected the original Piedmont plateau, forming narrow ridgetops, somewhat broad interfluves, and short, steep side slopes adjacent to the streams and drainageways. With some exceptions, the valley floors are generally narrow and make up about 10 percent or less of the land area. The associated stream terraces are generally small and of minor extent.

The landscape is moderately dissected overall, with isolated erosional remnants (monadnocks) and other areas of high topographic relief interspersed. Over most of the MLRA, elevation ranges from approximately 325 to 1,315 feet (100 to 400 meters), with elevations generally increasing toward the Appalachian Highlands, in the upper Piedmont, and decreasing toward the Coastal Plain, in the lower Piedmont.

The major rivers that cross this area en route to the ocean include, from north to south, the James, Roanoke, Cape Fear, Savannah, Altamaha, Chattahoochee, and Alabama Rivers. These rivers typically originate within the Piedmont or in the Blue Ridge. They flow east and south across the Coastal Plain and empty into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of America.

MLRA GEOLOGY
Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks underlie almost all of this MLRA. The dominant metamorphic rock types include gneiss, schist, slate, argillite, and phyllite, among others. Dominant igneous rock types include granite and other related felsic crystalline rocks. Mafic intrusive rocks, including gabbro, diabase, amphibolite, and other dark colored rocks, underlie a minority of the upland landscape. These mafic intrusions crop out in the form of dikes and sills, and often weather to produce soils high in base cations.

The Carolina Slate Belt runs lengthwise through the east-central part of the MLRA, in southern Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and the eastern-most part of the Georgia Piedmont. This region is underlain by fine-grained metasedimentary and metavolcanic rock, which generally weathers to produce soils high in silt.

From Virginia to North Carolina, and in a single county in South Carolina, fault-bounded Triassic Basins are scattered amongst the igneous and metamorphic uplands. These basins are underlain by Triassic and Jurassic siltstone, shale, sandstone, and mudstone, which were laid down in response to continental rifting and subsequent erosion during the Mesozoic era.

MLRA SOILS
The dominant soil orders of the MLRA are Ultisols, Inceptisols, and Alfisols. Ultisols and Alfisols are typically found on more stable landforms, such as interfluves, gentle hillslopes, broad ridgetops, and stream terraces, while Inceptisols are typically found on less stable landforms, including flood plains, steep hillslopes, and narrow ridgetops.

Soils of the region predominantly have a thermic temperature regime, a udic moisture regime, and generally have kaolinitic or mixed mineralogy. In the upper Piedmont of Virginia and North Carolina however, soils have a mesic soil temperature regime, as depicted in figure 2. The mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA is oriented from northeast to southwest and occupies approximately 18 percent of the MLRA extent, or 11,729 square miles (30,377 square kilometers).

Broadly speaking, soils of the Southern Piedmont uplands are shallow to very deep, well drained, and loamy or clayey. Soils of the river valleys are generally very deep, well to poorly drained, and loamy. Soils tend to be finer-textured than in Coastal Plain regions.

MLRA CLIMATE
In general, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year in this MLRA, with occasional drought-like conditions extending from late summer into autumn. During the growing season, most of the rainfall comes from high-intensity, convective thunderstorms. Significant moisture also comes from the movement of warm and cold fronts across the MLRA from November to April. High amounts of rain can also occur during hurricanes, usually during the months of August through October.

Over most of the MLRA, snowfall is typically light, though overall, the mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA features colder temperatures, more snowfall, and a shorter growing season than in the thermic portion. The cooler climate in this region supports an increase in species with northern or Blue Ridge affinities. Both the mean annual temperature and the length of the freeze-free period increase from north to south and with decreasing elevation from the upper to the lower Piedmont.

MLRA LAND USE AND RESOURCES
Once largely cultivated, much of this region is now planted to loblolly pine or has reverted to successional pine and hardwood forests. The more productive lands support small to medium-size family farms that produce crops and livestock, while the less productive lands have been in forest for some time. Most of the open areas are used for grazing beef cattle, though in years past, dairy cattle were also important to the local economy. The principal crops of the region include corn, soybeans, and small grains. Burley tobacco remains a crop of local importance. Cotton is grown in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA.

Several major land cover transformations have occurred in the Southern Piedmont over the past several centuries; from open woodlands sculpted by fire, to farmland, to closed forests and planted pine, past land uses have played an outsized role in shaping present-day soils and vegetation patterns in the region. Land-use intensity peaked with the arrival of the industrial revolution, which gradually increased demand for textiles. Cotton became the dominant crop over much of the region.

In spite of early successes, two centuries of poor management practices accelerated soil erosion, stripping away the fertility and moisture-supplying capacity of soils. In addition to soil losses in the uplands, legacy sediments derived from the eroded land rapidly accumulated in the river valleys below, often leading to changes in hydrology and flooding frequency.

After being stripped of it's loamy topsoil, many areas of the Piedmont had been so badly eroded as to render the land unsuitable or economically impractical for agriculture. The effects of erosion were widespread, with cumulative soil loss estimates ranging from 5 to 10 inches on average. The steeper slopes, which had often been cleared and farmed at the height of the Cotton era, generally suffered greater losses. By the 1930's, crop production was in rapid decline in the Southern Piedmont. The loss of soil productivity due to erosion, losses to the cotton boll weevil, development of synthetic fibers, and the onset of the Great Depression all contributed to rapid abandonment of cropland. By 1960, cropland acres had decreased by more than 50 percent in nearly every county in the Southern Piedmont.

While crop production is still important today on the more productive lands, those of lower productivity, or those that were subject to severe erosion, were often abandoned some time ago. Typically, they have either reverted to forest, or have been converted to other uses. Although the productivity of soils was greatly reduced through erosion, less intensive land uses such as grazing and forestry were still feasible. These land uses gained popularity as patterns of urban migration, low commodity prices, and other factors gradually made crop production less economical on the marginal lands.

In recent years, large-scale adoption of soil conservation practices have led to better outcomes with respect to erosion in much of MLRA, increasing the economic viability and long-term sustainability of Piedmont farms. Despite some success, water erosion remains one of the most important soil resource concerns in the MLRA.

Other major resource concerns include increasing conversion of prime farmland and farmland of statewide importance to urban uses. Throughout the MLRA, metropolitan areas are expanding into lands that have historically been used for timber or agriculture. This change in land use is occurring rapidly in the corridor called the Piedmont Crescent, which extends from Atlanta, Georgia, to Raleigh, North Carolina.

HISTORIC VEGETATION COVER
Over most of the Southern Piedmont uplands, the historic oak-hickory, or oak-hickory-pine forest, once covered large portions of the landscape. It was dominated by upland oaks, such as white oak (Quercus alba), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and southern red oak (Quercus falcata), with a smaller contribution from hickories (Carya spp.) and pines. The principal pine species are shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and to the north and west, Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana). In the southernmost and easternmost portions of the MLRA, the historic montane longleaf pine forest, dominated by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), shortleaf pine (P. echinata), and dry-site oaks, was found on ridgetops and steep south or west-facing slopes.

According to historic accounts, forests and woodlands of the past were generally more open and park-like, having been exposed to a more frequent fire regime. Piedmont prairies, likely maintained by Native Americans, were also reportedly common across the landscape, as were fire-maintained canebrakes along the streams (Trimble 1974; Daniels 1987; Griffith et al. 2002; Van Lear et al. 2004; Dearman and James 2019; Schomberg et al. 2020; USDA-NRCS 2022).

LRU notes

MLRA 136 is one of the largest MLRAs in the United States. It has a broad north-south and east-west extent and covers a wide range of elevations. The MLRA is partitioned by the mesic-thermic line, which divides the MLRA into mesic and thermic soil temperature regimes (figure 2.). The mesic soil temperature regime was delineated based on estimates of the native range of loblolly pine, which was historically absent in this part of the MLRA. In addition, this region is said to represent the northern and western limits of cotton production, an important crop to the south and east.

ESDs developed for this MLRA were split geographically into mesic and thermic ecological site concepts. Climate variation across the MLRA extent warrants the development of Land Resource Unit (LRU) classifications, to further subdivide the MLRA and support more precise Ecological Site Descriptions.

Classification relationships

APPLICABLE USNVC ASSOCIATIONS
CEGL007006 Liquidambar styraciflua - Quercus (phellos, nigra, alba) / Carpinus caroliniana

APPLICABLE EPA ECOREGIONS
Level III: 45. Piedmont
Level IV: 45a. Southern Inner Piedmont; 45b. Southern Outer Piedmont; 45c. Carolina Slate Belt; 45f. Northern Outer Piedmont; 45g. Triassic Basins; 45i. Kings Mountain; 45d. Talladega Upland; 45h. Pine Mountain Ridges (EPA 2013).

APPLICABLE USFS ECOLOGICAL UNITS
Domain: Humid Temperate
Division: Subtropical
Ecological province: 231. Southeastern Mixed Forest
Ecological sections: 231I.Central Appalachian Piedmont; 231A. Southern Appalachian Piedmont (Cleland et al. 2007).

Based on the USGS physiographic classification system (Fenneman and Johnson 1946), most of MLRA 136 is in the Piedmont Upland section of the Piedmont province, in the Appalachian Highlands division.

Ecological site concept

This ecological site includes moist areas on high stream terraces, which usually sit several meters above the active flood plain and experience a low incidence of flooding. It is geographically restricted to the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA. Although it does experience periodic flooding of very brief to brief duration, it may go several years or more without flooding. In this setting, mesophytic upland species and bottomland species often intermingle, promoting the establishment of a diverse assemblage of mixed hardwoods and pines at maturity.

Soils on this ecological site are typically very deep, well to moderately well drained Ultisols or Alfisols. They are generally better developed than those of adjacent flood plains, as the flooding frequency is not great enough to interfere with soil formation to any major extent. Being situated on more stable surfaces, soils on this ecological site usually have an argillic horizon in subsurface layers. Parent materials are typically loamy to clayey old alluvial sediments.

The reference state supports a closed canopy forest dominated by a mixture of mesophytic upland species and bottomland hardwoods, including willow oak (Quercus phellos), water oak (Quercus nigra), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), white oak (Quercus alba), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), American elm (Ulmus americana), and many others. Dominant land uses include cropland, pasture and hayland, wildlife habitat, and planted pine.

ES CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARY
• Thermic soil temperature regime
• Occurs on stream terraces in river valleys
• Seasonal high water table: > 18 inches from the soil surface
• Soils: very deep, well to moderately well drained Ultisols or Alfisols

Associated sites

F136XY650NC	Low Terraces and Drains, Rare Inundation Typically found in lower landscape positions. The seasonal high water table is shallower (12-18 inches from the soil surface) and the flooding frequency is usually higher, supporting an increase in obligate or facultative wetland indicator species.
F136XY640VA	Low Terraces and Drains, Occasional Inundation Found in lower landscape positions. The seasonal high water table is much shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface) and the flooding frequency is usually higher, supporting a greater proportion of obligate wetland indicator species.

F136XY650NC

Low Terraces and Drains, Rare Inundation

Typically found in lower landscape positions. The seasonal high water table is shallower (12-18 inches from the soil surface) and the flooding frequency is usually higher, supporting an increase in obligate or facultative wetland indicator species.

F136XY640VA

Low Terraces and Drains, Occasional Inundation

Found in lower landscape positions. The seasonal high water table is much shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface) and the flooding frequency is usually higher, supporting a greater proportion of obligate wetland indicator species.

Similar sites

F136XY160VA	Mesic Temperature Regime, High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation The soil temperature regime is mesic, occurring outside of the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).
F136XY620GA	Flood Plain Forest, Moist Found on active flood plains that are subject to regular overbank flooding and higher flooding-related tree mortality, supporting an increase in riparian species which invest in rapid growth and early reproduction (e.g., American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), etc.). Soil pH and natural fertility are usually higher on these younger surfaces.

F136XY160VA

Mesic Temperature Regime, High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation

The soil temperature regime is mesic, occurring outside of the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).

F136XY620GA

Flood Plain Forest, Moist

Found on active flood plains that are subject to regular overbank flooding and higher flooding-related tree mortality, supporting an increase in riparian species which invest in rapid growth and early reproduction (e.g., American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), etc.). Soil pH and natural fertility are usually higher on these younger surfaces.

Figure 1. EPA level IV ecoregions of the Southern Piedmont (45).

Figure 2. Spatial illustration of soil temperature regimes of the Southern Piedmont.

Figure 3. Spatial extent of this ecological site representing the major areas where this site is important on the landscape.

Table 4. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Quercus (2) Liquidambar styraciflua
Shrub	(1) Viburnum prunifolium (2) Euonymus americanus
Herbaceous	(1) Polystichum acrostichoides (2) Carex

Download full description

Physiographic features

This ecological site is found on high stream terraces, in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA. It typically sits several meters above the active flood plain and some distance from the river channel, on alluvial landforms that are spared from most of the flooding experienced on lower surfaces. Although stream terraces are the most representative landform associated with this ecological site, the range of variability also includes transitional terraces known as flood-plain steps, which sit below the 100 year flood zone. Occasionally, this ecological site can be found along the lower segments of drainageways leading down to river valleys. In either case, overbank flooding is not the primary driver of pedogenesis or ecological dynamics.

This ecological site is more widespread than the wetter associated ecological site concepts PX136X00X640 and PX136X00X650, as these concepts are mostly restricted to relatively broad river valleys with broad, stepped surfaces. This ecological site on the other hand, is found in both broad and narrow river valleys, and along large and small river systems. Although it is of widespread extent across much of the MLRA, stream terraces do tend to be narrower and occupy less area along the smaller streams.

Stream terraces form in response to gradual downcutting of a stream channel and its immediately adjacent surfaces, usually initiated by events that shift erosional and depositional equilibrium. Over time, abandoned portions of the flood plain are left behind as remnant features. Representative locations are nearly level to gently sloping, with a representative slope of 0 to 6 percent and a maximum slope of 10 percent. The geologic substrate is generally loamy to clayey old alluvial sediments (Zinck 2016; Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2017).

Typical soil-landscape relationships in a broad river valley in the Southern
Piedmont. State soils are associated with this ecological site, depicted here on high stream terraces above an active flood plain.

Figure 1. Typical soil-landscape relationships in a broad river valley in the Southern Piedmont. State soils are associated with this ecological site, depicted here on high stream terraces above an active flood plain.

Typical soil-landscape relationships in a narrow river valley in the Southern
Piedmont, featuring Altavista and rarely flooded Wickham soils. Note that the associated wetter ecological site concepts PX136X00X650/PX136X00X640 are absent in this setting.

Figure 2. Typical soil-landscape relationships in a narrow river valley in the Southern Piedmont, featuring Altavista and rarely flooded Wickham soils. Note that the associated wetter ecological site concepts PX136X00X650/PX136X00X640 are absent in this setting.

Table 5. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) River valley > Stream terrace (2) River valley > Flood-plain step (3) Piedmont > Drainageway
Runoff class	Negligible to low
Flooding duration	Very brief (4 to 48 hours)
Flooding frequency	None to rare
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	240 – 1040 ft
Slope	0 – 6 %
Water table depth	24 – 72 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Table 6. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)

Runoff class	Negligible to very high
Flooding duration	Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	None to occasional
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	170 – 1820 ft
Slope	0 – 10 %
Water table depth	18 – 999 in

Climatic features

On this ecological site, the average mean annual precipitation is 47 inches. On average, the rainiest months occur in July and August, as well as in March. The driest months occur in April, May, and October.

Table 7 Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	170-190 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	200-230 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	50-50 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	160-200 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	190-240 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	40-50 in
Frost-free period (average)	180 days
Freeze-free period (average)	210 days
Precipitation total (average)	50 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 3. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range

Bar

Line

Figure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 8 Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) LAWRENCEVILLE 3 E [USC00444768], Freeman, VA
(2) CHARLOTTE COURT HOUSE [USC00441585], Keysville, VA
(3) AMELIA 8 NE [USC00440188], Amelia Court House, VA
(4) ROXBORO 7 ESE [USC00317516], Roxboro, NC
(5) ARCOLA [USC00310241], Macon, NC
(6) HAW RIVER 1E [USC00313919], Graham, NC
(7) MONROE AP [USW00053872], Monroe, NC
(8) RALEIGH DURHAM INTL AP [USW00013722], Raleigh, NC
(9) ROCK HILL YORK CO AP [USW00053871], Rock Hill, SC
(10) CAMP HILL 2NW [USC00011324], Camp Hill, AL
(11) SILOAM 3N [USC00098064], Greensboro, GA
(12) MONTICELLO [USC00095988], Monticello, GA
(13) LA GRANGE 1N [USC00094949], LaGrange, GA
(14) TALBOTTON [USC00098535], Talbotton, GA
(15) CHESTER 1 SE [USC00381633], Chester, SC
(16) PARR [USC00386688], Jenkinsville, SC
(17) GREENWOOD CO AP [USW00053874], Greenwood, SC
(18) ROCKFORD 3 ESE [USC00017020], Rockford, AL
(19) ALBEMARLE [USC00310090], Albemarle, NC
(20) SALISBURY [USC00317615], Salisbury, NC
(21) NEWBERRY [USC00386209], Newberry, SC
(22) SIMMS WTP [USC00387885], Chesnee, SC
(23) CROZIER [USC00442142], Maidens, VA
(24) CARROLLTON [USC00091640], Carrollton, GA
(25) COVINGTON [USC00092318], Covington, GA
(26) WEST POINT [USC00099291], Lanett, GA
(27) CHARLOTTE DOUGLAS AP [USW00013881], Charlotte, NC
(28) COLUMBUS METRO AP [USW00093842], Columbus, GA
(29) SILER CITY 2 N [USC00317924], Siler City, NC
(30) CHASE CITY [USC00441606], Chase City, VA
(31) HICKORY FAA AP [USW00003810], Hickory, NC
(32) ASHLAND 3 ENE [USC00010369], Ashland, AL
(33) DALLAS 7 NE [USC00092485], Dallas, GA
(34) EXPERIMENT [USC00093271], Griffin, GA
(35) GAINESVILLE [USC00093621], Gainesville, GA
(36) MILLEDGEVILLE [USC00095874], Milledgeville, GA
(37) ASHEBORO 2 W [USC00310286], Asheboro, NC
(38) CHESNEE 7 WSW [USC00381625], Chesnee, SC
(39) CLEMSON UNIV [USC00381770], Clemson, SC
(40) GREENWOOD [USC00383754], Greenwood, SC
(41) ATHENS BEN EPPS AP [USW00013873], Athens, GA

Influencing water features

This ecological site sits high enough above the active flood plain to avoid much of the flooding experienced on lower surfaces. Flooding occurs mainly after a period of unusually wet weather. The heavy rainfall generates saturation-excess runoff, filling rivers and streams, leading to flooding on the higher river valley surfaces. Though it is prone to flooding during wet periods, it may go several years or more without flooding. In most locations, the chance of flooding in any given year is no greater than 5 percent, or approximately once every 20 years, though some locations can experience greater flooding frequency. The seasonal high water table is apparent at depths of 18 inches or greater, generally during the months of December to April.

Soil features

Soils on this ecological site are typically very deep, well to moderately well drained Ultisols or Alfisols. They are better developed than soils of adjacent flood plains, as they are generally found on more stable surfaces that are more conducive to soil genesis. As such, soils on this ecological site usually have an argillic horizon in subsurface layers.

Unlike many of the nearby or adjacent upland soils, the subsoil on this ecological site is generally yellowish or brownish in color and of medium texture, as opposed to being reddish in color and high in clay. Together these attributes are usually indicative of long periods of weathering on a very stable geomorphic surface, and a higher, drier, and warmer weathering environment. As a general rule, these attributes are usually associated with the genesis of nearby upland soils, which in turn tend to support upland or upland-like vegetation. Soils on this ecological site can fall into either a fine-loamy or fine particle size family. The subsoil however, is almost always yellowish or brownish in color. Redoximorphic features (iron and/or manganese depletions) may be found at depths of 18 inches or greater. Parent materials are loamy to clayey old alluvial sediments.

Reaction in the subsoil is typically moderately acid to very strongly acid (pH 4.5 to 6.0), although it can be closer to neutral under unusually rich site conditions. In the surface layers, reaction varies with land use and management. Under low input or forested conditions, it generally falls somewhere between pH 4.5 and 6.5. These soils have a long history of cultivation in most parts of the MLRA. Soils generally have few limitations for most agricultural land uses.

Soils on this ecological site have a thermic soil temperature regime, which is characterized by a mean annual soil temperature of 15°C to 22°C and a winter to summer temperature differential of 6°C or more in the subsoil.

Modal taxa include: Typic Hapludults, Aquic Hapludults
Modal soil series include: Altavista, State
Other soils attributed to this ecological site include Peawick, Tillery, Bolling, Dorian, Dogue, Thomson, Whistlestop, McQueen, Pamunkey, Starr, Wickham (rarely flooded phases), Seneca, Mattaponi

Figure 9. An illustration of a soil profile belonging to the State series, a representative soil series associated with this ecological site.

Figure 10. A soil profile of the Altavista series.

Table 8. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium – igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock
Surface texture	(1) Fine sandy loam (2) Sandy loam (3) Silt loam (4) Loam
Family particle size	(1) Fine-loamy (2) Fine
Drainage class	Moderately well drained to well drained
Permeability class	Moderate to moderately rapid
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	7 – 13 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	4.5 – 6.5
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	0 – 6 %
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	Not specified

Table 9. Representative soil features (actual values)

Drainage class	Moderately well drained to well drained
Permeability class	Moderate to moderately rapid
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	0 %
Surface fragment cover >3"	0 %
Available water capacity (0-80in)	5 – 18 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	3.5 – 7.3
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	0 – 14 %
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	0 – 2 %

Ecological dynamics

U.S. National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) associations that are consistent with reference conditions on this ecological site include CEGL007006 Liquidambar styraciflua - Quercus (phellos, nigra, alba) / Carpinus caroliniana. This concept is closely related to the reference community, although examples with a high cover of sweetgum (L. styraciflua) in the canopy may represent an intermediate stage of succession, preceding a more diverse steady-state mature forest community. Examples that contain a high cover of American beech (F. grandifolia), which can be abundant on high stream terraces, are included in this association. The reference community on this ecological site overlaps that of Schafale (2012), 'Piedmont Bottomland Forest (High Subtype)' (USNVC 2022).

MATURE FORESTS
The reference state supports a closed canopy forest dominated by a mixture of mesophytic upland species, bottomland hardwoods, and scattered pines. Characteristic species of the canopy layer include willow oak (Quercus phellos), water oak (Quercus nigra), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), white oak (Quercus alba), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), American elm (Ulmus americana), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), red maple (Acer rubrum), and various hickories (Carya spp.). Swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii) may be present, but it is not usually as important as it is on lower surfaces.

Species typical of flood plains and natural levees, such as boxelder (Acer negundo), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), and river birch (Betula nigra) may be present, but these species rarely make a sizable contribution to the canopy in mature stands. In general, this is a community of high canopy diversity.

The subcanopy layer is generally well-developed, featuring a diverse group of tree species. Common species include American holly (Ilex opaca), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), winged elm (Ulmus alata), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), and common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), among others.

Unless invaded by non-native understory species, vines, shrubs, and herbs are diverse. Characteristic shrubs include blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), bursting-heart (Euonymus americana), American holly (Ilex opaca), possumhaw (Ilex decidua), and southern arrowwood (Viburnum recognitum, V. dentatum).

Though the herb layer is often diverse, it is not usually dense. Species that occur with some frequency in plot data include forbs such as Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), white avens (Geum canadense), partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), littlebrownjug (Hexastylis arifolia), Canadian blacksnakeroot (Sanicula canadensis), smooth Solomon's seal (Polygonatum biflorum), helmet flower (Scutellaria integrifolia), and licorice bedstraw (Galium circaezans). Common graminoids include several species of Carex (C. debilis, radiata, amphibola, etc.), Indian woodoats (Chasmanthium latifolium), and several species of Dichanthelium (D. commutatum, boscii, dichotomum, etc.).

DYNAMICS OF NATURAL SUCCESSION
Successional dynamics on this ecological site are not well-documented. Tree replacement likely takes place in canopy gaps caused by windthrow, disease, and the like, much like on moist uplands of the Piedmont. Flooding presumably plays a relatively minor role. Though fire was historically a key driver of successional dynamics on Piedmont uplands, the influence of fire on this ecological site was probably of limited importance.

This ecological site is particularly vulnerable to invasion by Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), a non-native shrub or small tree which was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century. Many thousands of acres of bottomlands and flood plain forests now have a nearly continuous layer of Chinese privet, excluding most of the native flora beneath. Also problematic is Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), otherwise known as Japanese stiltgrass, which thrives in low-lying areas. This non-native bamboo-like grass can outcompete most native herbs under conditions of low light, often forming dense monospecific stands with few other species. These and other introduced species, such as multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), usually require disturbance to gain a foothold, but once they do, they are remarkably persistent due to their reproductive capacity and tolerance for shade.

YOUNG SECONDARY FORESTS
Young secondary forests associated with this ecological site are usually even-aged, less diverse, and more likely to be invaded by non-native understory species. Typically, these forests are strongly dominated by only a handful of species, of which sweetgum (L. styraciflua) is probably most common overall. The dominance of sweetgum (L. styraciflua) and other early pioneers declines as the forest matures, though some of these species remain important in mature stands as well, albeit to a lesser extent. Other characteristic species of young secondary forests on this ecological site include American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), red maple (Acer rubrum), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and winged elm (Ulmus alata).

At the start of European settlement, high stream terraces would have been particularly attractive for agriculture, given the inherent combination of fertile soils, nearly level ground, adequate drainage, and a low annual probability of flooding. During the colonial period onward, most of the acreage associated with this ecological site was cleared and converted to cropland. Before that, these areas may have been the primary focus of pre-settlement agriculture. Although a portion of the acreage was abandoned some time ago, the majority is still in crops or pasture, or alternatively under urban land uses. In those examples that have been allowed to regenerate, the majority are currently in a state of young secondary growth. These stands provide an opportunity to study site-specific successional trends and they may offer important clues as to what these forests will look like in the future (Nelson et al. 1957; Wharton 1978; Skeen et al. 1980; Schafale and Weakley 1990; Matthews et al. 2011; Schafale 2012a, 2012b; Edwards et al. 2013; Fleming et al. 2021).

SPECIES LIST
Canopy layer: Quercus phellos, Quercus nigra, Liquidambar styraciflua, Quercus alba, Fagus grandifolia, Quercus rubra, Quercus shumardii, Ulmus americana, Carya cordiformis, Carya ovata, Pinus taeda, Carya glabra, Carya tomentosa, Acer rubrum, Ulmus alata, Liriodendron tulipifera, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, Quercus pagoda, Quercus michauxii,

Subcanopy layer: Ilex opaca, Cornus florida, Fagus grandifolia, Carpinus caroliniana, Ulmus alata, Nyssa sylvatica, Diospyros virginiana, Acer rubrum, Prunus serotina, Acer floridanum, Ostrya virginiana, Magnolia tripetala, Amelanchier arborea,

Vines/lianas: Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Bignonia capreolata, Smilax rotundifolia, Smilax bona-nox, Smilax glauca, Smilax tamnoides, Toxicodendron radicans, Vitis rotundifolia, Passiflora lutea, Menispermum canadense, Vitis cinerea var. baileyana, Vitis vulpina, Vitis labrusca, Gelsemium sempervirens, Lonicera japonica (I)

Shrub layer: Viburnum prunifolium, Euonymus americanus, Ilex opaca, Ilex decidua, Viburnum recognitum, Viburnum dentatum, Aesculus sylvatica, Aesculus pavia, Crataegus spp. (flabellata, marshallii, iracunda, etc.), Staphylea trifolia, Ligustrum sinense (I), Rosa multiflora (I), Elaeagnus umbellata (I)

Herb layer - forbs: Polystichum acrostichoides, Geum canadense, Mitchella repens, Hexastylis arifolia, Sanicula canadensis, Polygonatum biflorum, Scutellaria integrifolia, Galium circaezans, Asarum canadense, Polygonum virginianum, Geranium maculatum, Solidago caesia, Ruellia caroliniensis, Collinsonia canadensis, Pluchea camphorata, Elephantopus carolinianus, Cryptotaenia canadensis, Erythronium umbilicatum, Tipularia discolor, Viola spp., Maianthemum racemosum, Dioscorea quaternata, Aristolochia serpentaria, Asplenium platyneuron, Goodyera pubescens, Sanguinaria canadensis, Sisyrinchium angustifolium, Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides, Smallanthus uvedalius, Phegopteris hexagonoptera, Podophyllum peltatum, Boehmeria cylindrica, Verbesina occidentalis, Verbesina alternifolia, Viola sororia, Botrychium dissectum, Botrychium biternatum, Botrychium virginianum, Phryma leptostachya, Arisaema dracontium, Claytonia virginica, Ageratina altissima, Solidago rugosa, Thelypteris noveboracensis, Symphyotrichum lateriflorum, Potentilla simplex, Uvularia perfoliata, Stellaria pubera, Trillium catesbaei, Amsonia tabernaemontana, Prenanthes altissima, Hepatica americana, Desmodium paniculatum,

Herb layer - graminoids: Carex spp. (debilis, radiata, amphibola, laxiflora, gracillima, laxiculmis, oxylepis, kraliana, jamesii, etc.), Chasmanthium latifolium, Dichanthelium spp. (commutatum, dichotomum, laxiflorum, boscii), Poa cuspidata, Poa autumnalis, Festuca subverticillata, Chasmanthium sessiliflorum, Melica mutica, Cinna arundinacea, Luzula spp., Microstegium vimineum (I)

(I) = introduced

State and transition model

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State: High-Bottomland Forest

2. Secondary Succession State

3. Managed Pine Plantation State

4. Pasture/Hayland State

5. Cropland State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)

1. Reference State: High-Bottomland Forest

5. Cropland State

2. Secondary Succession State

T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Abandonment of forestry practices.
T3B	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T3C	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T4B	-	Site prep and tree planting.
T4C	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T5A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T5B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T5C	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Land use 2 submodel, ecosystem states

1.2.1. Forested Successional Phase

1.2.2. Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

1.2.3. Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

2.1A	-	Clearcut logging.
2.2A	-	Natural succession.
2.2B	-	Brush management.
2.3A	-	Natural succession.

Land use 5 submodel, ecosystem states

1.5.1. Conservation-management Cropland Phase

1.5.2. Conventional-management Cropland Phase

4.1A	-	Conventional tillage is reintroduced.
4.2A	-	Implementation of conservation tillage and other soil conservation practices

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Forested Successional Phase

2.2. Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

2.3. Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

2.1A	-	Clearcut logging.
2.2A	-	Natural succession.
2.2B	-	Brush management.
2.3A	-	Natural succession.

State 5 submodel, plant communities

5.1. Conservation-management Cropland Phase

5.2. Conventional-management Cropland Phase

4.1A	-	Conventional tillage is reintroduced.
4.2A	-	Implementation of conservation tillage and other soil conservation practices

State 1
Reference State: High-Bottomland Forest

This mature forest state supports a closed canopy forest dominated by a diverse mixture of mesophytic upland species, bottomland hardwoods, and scattered pines.

Characteristics and indicators. Stands are uneven-aged with at least some old trees present. In contrast with young, recently disturbed stands, native species are more likely to dominate the shrub and herb layers. The subcanopy layer is usually well-developed, featuring a diverse group of tree species.

Dominant plant species

willow oak (Quercus phellos), tree
water oak (Quercus nigra), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tree
northern red oak (Quercus rubra), tree
Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), tree
American elm (Ulmus americana), tree
bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), shrub
bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), shrub
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
possumhaw (Ilex decidua), shrub
crossvine (Bignonia capreolata), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
southern arrowwood (Viburnum recognitum), shrub
southern arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
white edge sedge (Carex debilis), grass
eastern star sedge (Carex radiata), grass
eastern narrowleaf sedge (Carex amphibola), grass
Indian woodoats (Chasmanthium latifolium), grass
variable panicgrass (Dichanthelium commutatum), grass
Bosc's panicgrass (Dichanthelium boscii), grass
cypress panicgrass (Dichanthelium dichotomum), grass
early bluegrass (Poa cuspidata), grass
autumn bluegrass (Poa autumnalis), grass
nodding fescue (Festuca subverticillata), grass
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), other herbaceous
white avens (Geum canadense), other herbaceous
Canadian wildginger (Asarum canadense), other herbaceous
partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), other herbaceous
Carolina wild petunia (Ruellia caroliniensis), other herbaceous
Canadian blacksnakeroot (Sanicula canadensis), other herbaceous
jumpseed (Polygonum virginianum), other herbaceous
smooth Solomon's seal (Polygonatum biflorum), other herbaceous
helmet flower (Scutellaria integrifolia), other herbaceous
licorice bedstraw (Galium circaezans), other herbaceous

State 2
Secondary Succession State

This state develops in the immediate aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Which species colonize a particular location in the wake of a disturbance does involve a considerable degree of chance. It also depends a great deal on the type, duration, and magnitude of the disturbance event.

Characteristics and indicators. Plant age distribution is usually even.

Community 2.1
Forested Successional Phase

This successional phase develops in the wake of long-term agricultural abandonment, logging, storm-related catastrophic tree mortality, or other large-scale disturbances that have led to canopy removal in the recent past. It is typically dominated by a mixture of hardwoods and pines. Stands are usually even-aged and tend to have an abundance of non-native species in the understory.

Forest overstory.Overall, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is the probably the most representative species of the canopy layer. Other important species include American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), and red maple (Acer rubrum), among others. Species diversity is generally lower than in mature examples. Oaks and hickories are typically scarce or absent in the canopy.

Forest understory. Typical subcanopy tree species include American holly (Ilex opaca), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), and common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). Seedlings of oaks, hickories, and other slow growing, shade-tolerant tree species are usually present in the understory. These seedlings are released gradually as the forest matures and successional canopy species die. In the shrub layer, Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) is often strongly dominant, along with vines such as Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), and several species of Smilax (S. rotundifolia, bona-nox, glauca, tamnoides). In the herb layer, Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), or Japanese stiltgrass as it is commonly known, is often abundant. This non-native bamboo-like grass gains a foothold after disturbance.

Dominant plant species

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
water oak (Quercus nigra), tree
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), shrub
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
white edge sedge (Carex debilis), grass
eastern star sedge (Carex radiata), grass
eastern narrowleaf sedge (Carex amphibola), grass
variable panicgrass (Dichanthelium commutatum), grass
Bosc's panicgrass (Dichanthelium boscii), grass
cypress panicgrass (Dichanthelium dichotomum), grass
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), other herbaceous
wrinkleleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa ssp. rugosa), other herbaceous
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
wild garlic (Allium vineale), other herbaceous
fan clubmoss (Lycopodium digitatum), other herbaceous
Carolina elephantsfoot (Elephantopus carolinianus), other herbaceous
common blue violet (Viola sororia), other herbaceous
white avens (Geum canadense), other herbaceous
Carolina wild petunia (Ruellia caroliniensis), other herbaceous
sparselobe grapefern (Botrychium biternatum), other herbaceous

Community 2.2
Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

This successional phase is dominated by shrubs and vines, along with seedlings of opportunistic hardwoods and pines. It grades into the forested successional phase as tree seedlings become saplings and begin to occupy more of the canopy cover.

Forest overstory.Non-native species usually occupy a large portion of the vine or shrub cover in most examples, with Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) being the most troublesome species on this ecological site. Other common shrub species include blackberry (Rubus spp.) and multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora). Characteristic vines include poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), several species of greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia, S. bona-nox, S. tamnoides, S. glauca), trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), and Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica).

Dominant plant species

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
black cherry (Prunus serotina), tree
Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana), tree
Chinaberrytree (Melia azedarach), tree
tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), tree
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
eastern baccharis (Baccharis halimifolia), shrub
coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
St. Johnswort (Hypericum), shrub
deertongue (Dichanthelium clandestinum), grass
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
velvet panicum (Dichanthelium scoparium), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
wrinkleleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa ssp. rugosa), other herbaceous
yellow crownbeard (Verbesina occidentalis), other herbaceous
hairy leafcup (Smallanthus uvedalius), other herbaceous
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
aster (Symphyotrichum), other herbaceous

Community 2.3
Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

This transient community is composed of the first herbaceous invaders in the aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale natural disturbances that lead to canopy removal.

Species composition is highly variable at this stage of succession. In addition to the named species, other herbaceous pioneers common to this ecological site include wrinkleleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa ssp. rugosa), hairy leafcup (Smallanthus uvedalius), cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.), evening primrose (Oenothera spp.), Queen Anne's lace (Daucus carota), Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis), great ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), and many others.

Resilience management. If the user wishes to maintain this community/phase for wildlife or pollinator habitat, a prescribed burn, mowing, or prescribed grazing will be needed at least once annually to prevent community pathway 2.3A. To that end, as part of long-term maintenance, periodic overseeding of wildlife or pollinator seed mixtures can be helpful in ensuring the viability of certain desired species and maintaining the desired composition of species for user goals.

Dominant plant species

greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
crabgrass (Digitaria), grass
velvet panicum (Dichanthelium scoparium), grass
deertongue (Dichanthelium clandestinum), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
rush (Juncus), grass
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
American burnweed (Erechtites hieraciifolius), other herbaceous
American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana), other herbaceous
beggarticks (Bidens), other herbaceous
yellow crownbeard (Verbesina occidentalis), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
aster (Symphyotrichum), other herbaceous
Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), other herbaceous
bitter dock (Rumex obtusifolius), other herbaceous
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), other herbaceous

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.3

The forested successional phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Key drivers

Timber management

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

The shrub-dominated successional phase naturally moves towards the forested successional phase through natural succession.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3

The shrub-dominated successional phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through brush management, including herbicide application, mechanical removal, prescribed grazing, or fire.

Context dependence.Note: if the user wishes to use this community pathway to create wildlife or pollinator habitat, please contact a local NRCS office for a species list specific to the area of interest and user needs. If the user wishes to maintain the shrub-dominated successional phase long term, for wildlife habitat or other uses, periodic use of this community pathway is necessary to prevent community pathway 2.2A, which happens inevitably unless natural succession is set back through disturbance.

Key drivers

Fire
Livestock grazing or browsing
Brush management initiated by humans.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

The herbaceous early successional phase naturally moves towards the shrub-dominated successional phase through natural succession.

State 3
Managed Pine Plantation State

This converted state is dominated by planted timber trees. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) is the most commonly planted species. Even-aged management is the most common timber management system.

Note: if the user wishes to convert stands dominated by hardwoods to planted pine, clearcutting will usually be necessary first, allowing herbaceous pioneers to establish on the site in the weeks or months prior to planting. Users should utilize measures described in transition T2B under these circumstances.

Resilience management. Hardwood Encroachment: Hardwood encroachment can be problematic in managed pine plantations. Good site preparation, proper stocking, and periodic thinning are advisable to reduce hardwood competition. Overstocking: The overstocked condition commonly occurs in naturally regenerated stands. When competition from other pines begins to impact the health and productivity of the stand, precommercial thinning should be considered. At this point, the benefit of thinning usually outweighs the potential for invasion and competition from non-pine species. As the target window for thinning passes, the condition of the stand can slowly deteriorate if no action is taken. Under long-term overstocked conditions, trees are more prone to stresses, including pine bark beetle infestation and damage from wind or ice. High-grading: In subsequent commercial thinnings, care should be taken in tree selection. High quality specimens should be left to reach maturity, while slower growing trees or those with defects should be removed sooner. If high quality specimens are harvested first, trees left behind are often structurally unsound, diseased, genetically inferior, or of poor form. This can have long-term implications for tree genetics and for the condition of the stand (Felix III 1983; Miller et al. 1995, 2003; Megalos 2019).

Dominant plant species

loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
grape (Vitis), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
St. Johnswort (Hypericum), shrub
rosette grass (Dichanthelium), grass
oatgrass (Danthonia), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), other herbaceous
fan clubmoss (Lycopodium digitatum), other herbaceous
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), other herbaceous
cinquefoil (Potentilla), other herbaceous

State 4
Pasture/Hayland State

This converted state is dominated by herbaceous forage species.

Resilience management. Flooding: This ecological site is subject to flooding in some years during periods of unusually wet weather. The duration of flooding is usually short-lived, though pastures may remain wet for longer periods. Landowners will need access to additional pasture or housing that is not subject to flooding, on which to move livestock as needed. Overgrazing and High Foot Traffic: In areas that are subject to high foot traffic from livestock and equipment, and/or long-term overgrazing, unpalatable weedy species tend to invade, as most desirable forage species are less competitive under these conditions. High risk areas include locations where livestock congregate for water, shade, or feed, and in travel lanes, gates, and other areas of heavy use. Plant species that are indicative of overgrazing or excessive foot traffic on this ecological site include buttercup (Ranunculus spp.), curly dock (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=RUCR" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Rumex crispus</a>), bitter dock (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=RUOB" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Rumex obtusifolius</a>), Virginia buttonweed (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=DIVI3" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Diodia virginiana</a>), Oriental lady's thumb (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=POCE4" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Polygonum cespitosum</a> var. longisetum), Carolina horsenettle (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=SOCA3" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Solanum carolinense</a>), small carpetgrass (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ARHI3" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Arthraxon hispidus</a>), nimblewill (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=MUSC" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Muhlenbergia schreberi</a>), Nepalese browntop (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=MIVI" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Microstegium vimineum</a>), and common rush (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=JUEF" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Juncus effusus</a>), among others. An overabundance of these species, along with poor plant vigor and areas of bare soil, may imply that excessive foot traffic and/or overgrazing is a concern, either in the present or in the recent past. Brush Encroachment: Brush encroachment can be problematic in some pastures, particularly near fence lines where there is often a ready seed source. Pastures subject to low stocking density and long-duration grazing rotations can also be susceptible to encroachment from woody plants. Shorter grazing rotations of higher stocking density can help alleviate pressure from shrubs and vines with low palatability or thorny stems. Clipping behind grazing rotations, annual brush hogging, and multispecies grazing systems (cattle with or followed by goats) can also be helpful. Common woody invaders of pasture on this ecological site include Chinese privet (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=LISI" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Ligustrum sinense</a>), blackberry (Rubus spp.), and rose (Rosa spp.).

Dominant plant species

tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), grass
orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), grass
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), grass
dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), grass
perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), grass
beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
white clover (Trifolium repens), other herbaceous
red clover (Trifolium pratense), other herbaceous
vetch (Vicia), other herbaceous
narrowleaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous

State 5
Cropland State

This converted state produces food or fiber for human uses. It is dominated by domesticated crop species, along with typical weedy invaders of cropland.

Community 5.1
Conservation-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the practice of no-tillage or strip-tillage, and other soil conservation practices. Though no-till systems offer many benefits, several weedy species tend to be more problematic under this type of management system. In contrast with conventional tillage systems, problematic species in no-till systems include biennial or perennial weeds, owing to the fact that tillage is no longer used in weed management.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous
upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), other herbaceous
cultivated tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), other herbaceous

Community 5.2
Conventional-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the recurrent use of tillage as a management tool. Due to the frequent disturbance regime, weedy invaders tend to be annual herbaceous species that reproduce quickly and are prolific seed producers.

Resilience management. The potential for soil loss is high under this management system. Measures should be put in place to limit erosion.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous
upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), other herbaceous
cultivated tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), other herbaceous

Pathway 4.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2

The conservation-management cropland phase can shift to the conventional-management cropland phase through cessation of conservation tillage practices and the reintroduction of conventional tillage practices.

Context dependence.Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after reintroduction of conventional tillage practices. These changes continue to manifest as conventional tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Key drivers

Mechanical soil disturbance

Key ecosystem services affected

Erosion control
Climate regulation: carbon cycling and storage
Food and fiber: crops

Pathway 4.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.1

The conventional-management cropland phase can be brought into the conservation-management cropland phase through the implementation of one of several conservation tillage options, including no-tillage or strip-tillage, along with implementation of other soil conservation practices.

Context dependence.Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after implementation of conservation tillage. These changes continue to manifest as conservation tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Key drivers

Mechanical soil disturbance

Key ecosystem services affected

Erosion control
Climate regulation: carbon cycling and storage
Food and fiber: crops

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

The reference state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Key drivers

Timber management

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

The reference state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence.Herbicide applications, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Key drivers

Mechanical soil disturbance
Timber management
Seeding

Key ecosystem services affected

Cultural heritage values
Food and fiber: livestock forage
Plant biodiversity
Natural heritage values

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

The reference state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence.A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Key drivers

Mechanical soil disturbance
Timber management
Seeding

Key ecosystem services affected

Cultural heritage values
Erosion control
Climate regulation: carbon cycling and storage
Wildlife habitat
Plant biodiversity
Natural heritage values
Food and fiber: crops

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

The secondary succession state can transition to the reference state through long-term natural succession.

Constraints to recovery.Even with long-term natural succession, non-native species that gain a foothold after disturbance may still be problematic in the understory of bottomland forests nearing maturity. It is unknown whether the understory will eventually approach the composition of old-growth stands without significant human intervention. Species such as Chinese privet (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=LISI" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Ligustrum sinense</a>) and Nepalese browntop (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=MIVI" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov">Microstegium vimineum</a>) may become fixtures in mature bottomland forests of the near future, due to their reproductive capacity and tolerance for shade. The importance of these weedy invaders will likely decline over time, though the extent to which they will persist in the long-term absence of anthropogenic disturbance is unknown.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 3

The secondary succession state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and planting of timber trees. Thinning alone may be sufficient for portions of the forest if pines have already established, though it is rarely sufficient for an entire forest patch.

Key drivers

Timber management

Key ecosystem services affected

Food and fiber: wood products

Transition T2C
State 2 to 4

The secondary succession state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence.A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning wooded or semi-wooded land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Key drivers

Livestock grazing or browsing
Seeding
Brush management

Key ecosystem services affected

Food and fiber: livestock forage

Transition T2D
State 2 to 5

The secondary succession state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, 4) weed control, 5) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence.A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking may be needed to successfully transition land that has been fallow for some time back to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Key drivers

Mechanical soil disturbance
Seeding
Mechanical land clearing

Key ecosystem services affected

Erosion control
Climate regulation: carbon cycling and storage

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the secondary succession state through abandonment of forestry practices (with or without timber tree harvest).

Key drivers

Timber management

Key ecosystem services affected

Food and fiber: wood products

Transition T3B
State 3 to 4

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) timber harvest, 2) mechanical stump and debris removal, 3) seedbed preparation, 4) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence.Applications of fertilizer and lime can be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Key drivers

Mechanical soil disturbance
Timber management
Seeding

Key ecosystem services affected

Food and fiber: livestock forage
Food and fiber: wood products

Transition T3C
State 3 to 5

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the cropland state through 1) timber harvest, 2) mechanical stump and debris removal, 3) seedbed preparation, 4) applications of fertilizer/lime, 5) weed control, 6) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Key drivers

Mechanical soil disturbance
Timber management
Seeding

Key ecosystem services affected

Erosion control
Food and fiber: wood products
Food and fiber: crops

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the secondary succession state through long-term cessation of grazing.

Key ecosystem services affected

Aesthetic values
Food and fiber: livestock forage

Transition T4B
State 4 to 3

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and tree planting.

Key drivers

Timber management

Key ecosystem services affected

Food and fiber: livestock forage
Food and fiber: wood products

Transition T4C
State 4 to 5

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the cropland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) applications of fertilizer/lime, 3) weed control, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Key drivers

Mechanical soil disturbance
Seeding

Key ecosystem services affected

Erosion control
Food and fiber: livestock forage
Climate regulation: carbon cycling and storage
Food and fiber: crops

Transition T5A
State 5 to 2

The cropland state can transition to the secondary succession state through agricultural abandonment.

Transition T5B
State 5 to 3

The cropland state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and tree planting.

Key drivers

Timber management
Food and fiber: crops

Key ecosystem services affected

Food and fiber: wood products
Food and fiber: crops

Transition T5C
State 5 to 4

The cropland state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) weed control, and 3) planting of perennial forage grasses and forbs.

Context dependence.To convert cropland to pasture or hayland, weed control and good seed-soil contact are important. It is also critical to review the labels of herbicides used for weed control and on the previous crop. Many herbicides have plant-back restrictions, which if not followed could carryover and kill forage seedlings as they germinate. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Key drivers

Mechanical soil disturbance
Seeding

Key ecosystem services affected

Erosion control
Food and fiber: livestock forage
Climate regulation: carbon cycling and storage
Food and fiber: crops

Additional community tables

Table 10. Community 2.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 11. Community 2.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 12. Community 2.3 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 13. Community 5.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 14. Community 5.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Data collection and analysis of field data will be performed during the Verification Stage of ESD development.

Other references

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections for the conterminous United States. General Technical Report WO-76D. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Washington, D.C.

Daniels, R.B. 1987. Soil Erosion and Degradation in the Southern Piedmont of the USA. In: M.G. Wolman, F.G.A. Fournier (eds.) Land Transformation in Agriculture. John Wiley and Sons. New York, NY.

Dearman, T.L., L.A. James. 2019. Patterns of legacy sediment deposits in a small South Carolina Piedmont catchment, USA. Geomorphology. 343(15):1-14.

Edwards, L., J., Ambrose, and L.K. Kirkman. 2013. Piedmont Ecoregion. In L. Edwards et al. (ed.) The natural communities of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA. 257-345.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2013. Level III and IV ecoregions of the continental
United States. National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory. Corvallis, Oregon. Map scale 1:3,000,000.

Felix III, A.C., T.L. Sharik, B.S. McGinnes, W.C. Johnson. 1983. Succession in loblolly pine plantations converted from second-growth forest in the Central Piedmont of Virginia.

Fenneman, N.M., Johnson D.W. 1946. Physiographic Divisions of the Conterminous U.S. U.S. Geological Survey. Washington, DC.

Fleming, G. P., K. D. Patterson, and K. Taverna. 2021. The natural communities of Virginia: A classification of ecological community groups and community types. Third approximation. Version 3.3. Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage, Richmond, VA. [http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural-heritage/natural-communities/]

Matthews, E.M., R.K. Peet and A.S. Weakley. 2011. Classification and description of alluvial plant communities of the Piedmont region, North Carolina, U.S.A. Applied Vegetation Science. 14:485-505.

Megalos, M. 2019. Thinning Pine Stands. Woodland Owners Notes. NC State Extension. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/thinning-pine-stands (accessed 18 March 2023).

Miller, J.H., B.R. Zutter, S.M. Zedaker, M.B. Edwards, R.A. Newbold. 1995. Early plant succession in loblolly pine plantations as affected by vegetation management. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 19(3):109-126.

Miller, J.H., B.R. Zutter, R.A. Newbold, M.B. Edwards, S.M. Zedaker. 2003. Stand dynamics and plant associates of loblolly pine plantations to midrotation after early intensive vegetation management – a southeastern United States regional study. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 27(4):221-236.

Nelson, T.C., R.D. Ross, G. D. Walker. 1957. The extent of moist sites in the Georgia Piedmont and their forest associations. Res. Notes #102, S.E. Forest Experiment Station. United States Forest Service. Asheville, N.C.

Schafale, M.P., A.S. Weakley. 1990. Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina. Third approximation. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Recreation, Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, NC.

Schafale, M.P. 2012a. Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina, 4th Approximation. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Recreation. Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, NC.

Schafale, M.P. 2012b. Guide to the Natural Communities of North Carolina. 4th Approximation. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Recreation. Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, NC.

Schoeneberger, P.J., Wysocki, D.A. 2017. Geomorphic Description System, Version 5.0. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center. Lincoln, NE.

Schomberg, H., G. Hoyt, B. Brock, G. Naderman. A. Meijer. 2020. Southern Piedmont Case Studies. In: J. Bergtold, M. Sailus (eds.) Conservation Tillage Systems in the Southeast. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) program.

Skeen, J.N., M.E. Brown Carter, H.L. Ragsdale. 1980. Yellow-Poplar: The Piedmont Case. 107(1):1-6.

Spira, T.P. 2011. Wildflowers & Plant Communities of the Southern Appalachian Mountains and Piedmont. A naturalist’s guide to the Carolinas, Virginia, Tennessee, and Georgia. The University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, NC.

Trimble, S.W. 1974. Man-Induced Soil Erosion on the Southern Piedmont, 1700–1970. Soil Conservation Society of America. Ankeny, IA.

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2022. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 296.

United States National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) Database Version 2.04. 2022. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee. Washington, DC. Available at https://usnvc.org.

Van Lear, D.H, R.A. Harper, P.R. Kapeluck, and W.D. Carroll. 2004. History of Piedmont Forests: Implications for Current Pine Management. General Technical Report SRS–71. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. Asheville, NC.

Weakley, A.S., and Southeastern Flora Team. 2023. Flora of the southeastern United States. University of North Carolina Herbarium, North Carolina Botanical Garden, Chapel Hill, NC.

Wharton, C.H. 1978. Natural environments of Georgia. Georgia Department of Natural Resources. Atlanta, Georgia.

Zinck, J.A. 2016. The Geopedologic Approach. In: J.A Zinck, G. Metternicht, G. Bocco, H.F. Del Valle (eds.) Geopedology. Springer, Cham.

Contributors

Yogev Erez
Dee Pederson

Approval

Charles Stemmans, 5/02/2025

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	08/20/2026
Approved by
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Presence of water flow patterns:
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:

Sub-dominant:

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Perennial plant reproductive capability:

Download reference sheet

Natural ResourcesConservation Service

Ecological site F136XY660NC

High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation

Last updated: 5/02/2025 Accessed: 08/20/2026

Search

General information

MLRA notes

LRU notes

Classification relationships

Ecological site concept

Associated sites

Similar sites

Figure 1. EPA level IV ecoregions of the Southern Piedmont (45).

Figure 2. Spatial illustration of soil temperature regimes of the Southern Piedmont.

Figure 3. Spatial extent of this ecological site representing the major areas where this site is important on the landscape.

Table 4. Dominant plant species

Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Last updated: 5/02/2025
Accessed: 08/20/2026