Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Mesic Temperature Regime, Acidic High Hills and Isolated Ridges, Depth Restriction, Dry
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
Select a state
Management practices/drivers
Select a transition or restoration pathway
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Transition T1A
Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
More details -
Transition T1B
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
More details -
Transition T2A
Long-term natural succession.
More details -
Transition T2B
Site preparation and tree planting.
More details -
Transition T2C
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
More details -
Transition T3A
Abandonment of forestry practices.
More details -
Transition T3B
Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
More details -
Transition T4A
Long-term cessation of grazing.
More details -
Transition T4B
Site preparation and tree planting.
More details -
No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
Select a state
Description
This mature forest state is generally dominated by dry-site oaks, or a mixture of dry-site oaks and pines, with acid-tolerant flora in the understory.
Characteristics and indicators
Stands are uneven-aged with at least some old trees present.
Submodel
Description
This successional phase develops in the wake of clearcut logging, storm-related catastrophic tree mortality, or other large-scale disturbances that have led to canopy removal in the recent past. Which species colonize a particular location in the wake of a disturbance does involve a considerable degree of chance. It also depends a great deal on the type, duration, and magnitude of the disturbance event.
Characteristics and indicators
Plant age distribution is even. Plants exhibit pioneering traits such as rapid growth, early reproduction, and shade-intolerance.
Submodel
Description
This converted state is dominated by planted timber trees. Commonly planted species include loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), and eastern white pine (Pinus strobus). Even-aged management is the most common timber management system.
Note: if the user wishes to convert stands dominated by hardwoods to planted pine, clearcutting will usually be necessary first, allowing herbaceous pioneers to establish on the site in the weeks or months prior to planting. Users should utilize measures described in transition T2B under these circumstances.
Resilience management
Hardwood Encroachment:
Hardwood encroachment can be problematic in managed pine plantations. Good site preparation, proper stocking, and periodic thinning are advisable to reduce hardwood competition.
Overstocking:
The overstocked condition commonly occurs in naturally regenerated stands. When competition from other pines begins to impact the health and productivity of the stand, precommercial thinning should be considered. At this point, the benefit of thinning usually outweighs the potential for invasion and competition from non-pine species. As the target window for thinning passes, the condition of the stand can slowly deteriorate if no action is taken. Under long-term overstocked conditions, trees are more prone to stresses, including pine bark beetle infestation and damage from wind or ice.
High-grading:
In subsequent commercial thinnings, care should be taken in tree selection. High quality specimens should be left to reach maturity, while slower growing trees or those with defects should be removed sooner. If high quality specimens are harvested first, trees left behind are often structurally unsound, diseased, genetically inferior, or of poor form. This can have long-term implications for tree genetics and for the condition of the stand (Felix III 1983; Miller et al. 1995, 2003; Megalos 2019).
Dominant plant species
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), tree
eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
sassafras (Sassafras albidum), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
blueberry (Vaccinium), shrub
muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
St. Johnswort (Hypericum), shrub
rosette grass (Dichanthelium), grass
poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), grass
striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata), grass
Submodel
Description
This converted state is dominated by herbaceous forage species.
Dominant plant species
dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), grass
purpletop tridens (Tridens flavus), grass
hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), grass
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), grass
smooth crabgrass (Digitaria ischaemum), grass
white clover (Trifolium repens), grass
Japanese clover (Kummerowia striata), grass
sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata), grass
black medick (Medicago lupulina), grass
field clover (Trifolium campestre), grass
narrowleaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata), grass
Submodel
Transition T1A
Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
Mechanism
The reference state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
Transition T1B
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Mechanism
The reference state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Context dependence
Herbicide applications, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.
Mechanism
The secondary succession state can transition to the reference state through long-term natural succession. This process can be accelerated to some degree by a combination of prescribed burns and selective harvesting of pines and opportunistic hardwoods.
Mechanism
The secondary succession state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and planting of timber trees. Thinning alone may be sufficient for portions of the forest if pines have already established, though it is rarely sufficient for an entire forest patch.
Transition T2C
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Mechanism
The secondary succession state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Context dependence
A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning wooded or semi-wooded land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.
Mechanism
The managed pine plantation state can transition to the secondary succession state through abandonment of forestry practices (with or without timber tree harvest).
Transition T3B
Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Mechanism
The managed pine plantation state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) timber harvest, 2) mechanical stump and debris removal, 3) seedbed preparation, 4) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Context dependence
Applications of fertilizer and lime can be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.
Mechanism
The pasture/hayland state can transition to the secondary succession state through long-term cessation of grazing.
Model keys
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