Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Mesic Temperature Regime, Low Terraces and Drains, Rare Inundation
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
Select a state
Management practices/drivers
Select a transition or restoration pathway
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Transition T1A
Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
More details -
Transition T1B
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
More details -
Transition T1C
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
More details -
Transition T2A
Long-term natural succession.
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Transition T2B
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
More details -
Transition T2C
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
More details -
Transition T3A
Long-term cessation of grazing.
More details -
Transition T3B
Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
More details -
Transition T4A
Agricultural abandonment.
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Transition T4B
Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
More details -
No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
Select a state
Description
This mature forest state supports a closed canopy forest dominated by bottomland oaks and other bottomland hardwood species.
Characteristics and indicators
Stands are uneven-aged with at least some old trees present. In contrast with young, recently disturbed stands, native species are more likely to dominate the shrub and herb layers.
Dominant plant species
willow oak (Quercus phellos), tree
swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
American elm (Ulmus americana), tree
bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), tree
common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
possumhaw (Ilex decidua), shrub
blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), shrub
giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea), shrub
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), shrub
crossvine (Bignonia capreolata), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
white edge sedge (Carex debilis), grass
eastern narrowleaf sedge (Carex amphibola), grass
eastern star sedge (Carex radiata), grass
Indian woodoats (Chasmanthium latifolium), grass
sweet woodreed (Cinna arundinacea), grass
asplenium ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides), grass
Jack in the pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), grass
partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), grass
helmet flower (Scutellaria integrifolia), grass
Canadian honewort (Cryptotaenia canadensis), grass
smooth Solomon's seal (Polygonatum biflorum), grass
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), grass
fringed loosestrife (Lysimachia ciliata), grass
common blue violet (Viola sororia), grass
fragrant bedstraw (Galium triflorum), grass
Submodel
Description
This state develops in the immediate aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Which species colonize a particular location in the wake of a disturbance does involve a considerable degree of chance. It also depends a great deal on the type, duration, and magnitude of the disturbance event.
Characteristics and indicators
Plant age distribution is usually even.
Submodel
Description
This converted state is dominated by herbaceous forage species.
Resilience management
Flooding:
This ecological site is subject to flooding in some years during periods of unusually wet weather. The duration of flooding is usually short-lived, though pastures may remain wet for longer periods. Landowners will need access to additional pasture or housing that is not subject to flooding, on which to move livestock as needed.
Overgrazing and High Foot Traffic:
In areas that are subject to high foot traffic from livestock and equipment, and/or long-term overgrazing, unpalatable weedy species tend to invade, as most desirable forage species are less competitive under these conditions. High risk areas include locations where livestock congregate for water, shade, or feed, and in travel lanes, gates, and other areas of heavy use. Plant species that are indicative of overgrazing or excessive foot traffic on this ecological site include buttercup (Ranunculus spp.), curly dock (Rumex crispus), bitter dock (Rumex obtusifolius), Virginia buttonweed (Diodia virginiana), Oriental lady's thumb (Polygonum cespitosum var. longisetum), Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), small carpetgrass (Arthraxon hispidus), nimblewill (Muhlenbergia schreberi), Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), and common rush (Juncus effusus), among others. An overabundance of these species, along with poor plant vigor and areas of bare soil, may imply that excessive foot traffic and/or overgrazing is a concern, either in the present or in the recent past.
Brush Encroachment:
Brush encroachment can be problematic in some pastures, particularly near fence lines where there is often a ready seed source. Pastures subject to low stocking density and long-duration grazing rotations can also be susceptible to encroachment from woody plants. Shorter grazing rotations of higher stocking density can help alleviate pressure from shrubs and vines with low palatability or thorny stems. Clipping behind grazing rotations, annual brush hogging, and multispecies grazing systems (cattle with or followed by goats) can also be helpful. Common woody invaders of pasture on this ecological site include Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), blackberry (Rubus spp.), rose (Rosa spp.), and common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana).
Dominant plant species
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), grass
eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), grass
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), grass
beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
rush (Juncus), grass
nimblewill (Muhlenbergia schreberi), grass
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
white clover (Trifolium repens), grass
vetch (Vicia), grass
Submodel
Description
This converted state produces food or fiber for human uses. It is dominated by domesticated crop species, along with typical weedy invaders of cropland. Soil wetness is the primary limiting factor for crop production, particularly for winter cereals and other cool-season crops.
Submodel
Transition T1A
Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
Mechanism
The reference state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
Transition T1B
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Mechanism
The reference state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Context dependence
Herbicide applications, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.
Transition T1C
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
Mechanism
The reference state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.
Context dependence
A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.
Mechanism
The secondary succession state can transition to the reference state through long-term natural succession.
Constraints to recovery
Even with long-term natural succession, non-native species that gain a foothold after disturbance may still be problematic in the understory of bottomland forests nearing maturity. It is unknown whether the understory will eventually approach the composition of old-growth stands without significant human intervention. Species such as Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) and Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum) may become fixtures in mature bottomland forests of the near future, due to their reproductive capacity and tolerance for shade. The importance of these weedy invaders will likely decline over time, though the extent to which they will persist in the long-term absence of anthropogenic disturbance is unknown.
Transition T2B
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Mechanism
The secondary succession state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Context dependence
A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning wooded or semi-wooded land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.
Transition T2C
Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
Mechanism
The secondary succession state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, 4) weed control, 5) planting of crop or cover crop seed.
Context dependence
A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking may be needed to successfully transition land that has been fallow for some time back to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.
Mechanism
The pasture/hayland state can transition to the secondary succession state through long-term cessation of grazing.
Transition T3B
Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
Mechanism
The pasture/hayland state can transition to the cropland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) applications of fertilizer/lime, 3) weed control, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.
Mechanism
The cropland state can transition to the secondary succession state through agricultural abandonment.
Transition T4B
Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
Mechanism
The cropland state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) weed control, and 3) planting of perennial forage grasses and forbs.
Context dependence
To convert cropland to pasture or hayland, weed control and good seed-soil contact are important. It is also critical to review the labels of herbicides used for weed control and on the previous crop. Many herbicides have plant-back restrictions, which if not followed could carryover and kill forage seedlings as they germinate. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.
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The Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.
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