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Ecological site F131AY306MS

Yazoo - Old Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll Ridge Forest

Last updated: 6/10/2025
Accessed: 07/17/2026

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 131A–Southern Mississippi River Alluvium

The Southern Mississippi River Alluvium (MLRA 131A) is the largest of 4 MLRAs within Land Resource Region O, the Mississippi Delta Cotton and Feed Grains Region. It occurs in portions of 7 states including Louisiana (32 percent), Arkansas (26 percent), Mississippi (26 percent), Missouri (12 percent), Tennessee (3 percent), Kentucky (1 percent), and Illinois (less than 1 percent). The MLRA is comprised of 29,555 square miles and extends roughly 650 miles from an area near Cape Girardeau, Missouri in the north to the MLRA’s transition to the Gulf Coast Marsh (MLRA 151) in the south. Average elevations range from 330 feet in the north to sea level in the southern part of the area. For much of the north-south distance, the MLRA is bounded to the east by an abrupt rise in elevation of loess-capped bluffs and hills, the Southern Mississippi Valley Loess (MLRA 134). West of the Mississippi River, the boundary is less distinct except to the northwest where the MLRA abuts the Ozark Plateaus and Ouachita province (MLRAs 116A, 117, and 118A). South of the Ozark and Ouachita escarpment, the MLRA adjoins the Southern Mississippi River Terraces (MLRA 131D), which includes the fabled Grand Prairie and merges with the valleys of the Arkansas and Ouachita rivers (MLRA 131B) and the Red River (MLRA 131C). Occurring within the Southern Mississippi River Alluvium are three separate loess-capped, upland remnants: Crowley’s Ridge, Macon Ridge, and Lafayette Loess Plain, which are western units of MLRA 134 (USDA-NRCS, 2006a).

MLRA 131A is characterized by landscapes that were created and influenced by the current and earlier paths of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Waters transporting the materials that formed the area originate from as far west as the east slope of the Continental Divide to the western edge of the Appalachian Divide in the east. This comprises a drainage basin of roughly 1,245,000 square miles and includes all or parts of thirty-one U.S. states and two Canadian provinces (Elliott, 1932). The drainage basin of the Mississippi River roughly resembles a funnel, which has its spout at the Gulf of America. Waters from as far east as New York and as far west as Montana contribute to flows in the lower extent of the river (USACE, 2017). The soils of these alluvial landscapes are very deep, dominantly poorly and somewhat poorly drained, and have textures that are mostly loamy or clayey. Principal soil orders are Alfisols, Vertisols, Inceptisols, and Entisols (USDA-NRCS, 2006a).

The fluvial processes that shaped the area were highly dynamic, diverse, and complex. During the Pleistocene epoch, multiple continental glacial-interglacial cycles resulted in extreme fluctuations in river discharge and sediment loads. A braided river regime characterized the fluvial dynamics of the Mississippi River through much of the last glacial cycle (Autin et al., 1991; Rittenhour et al., 2007). Rapid aggradation of glacial outwash led to the development of prominent valley train features over a large portion of the area (Autin et al., 1991; Saucier, 1994; Aslan and Autin, 1999; Blum et al., 2000; Rittenour et al., 2007). A changing climate, meltwater withdrawal, and sea-level change induced a transition from a braided river regime to a predominantly single-channeled, laterally migrating river system during the Holocene epoch (Rittenhour et al., 2007; Shen et al., 2012) – characteristics that continue today. Fluvial dynamics of the migrating river resulted in the development of broad meander belts, backswamp environments, and extensive deltaic complexes (Saucier, 1994; Klimas et al., 2011).

Tremendous expanses of bottomland hardwood forests once covered much of the area. Today, the land base is largely in agriculture production, and soybeans, cotton, corn, and rice are the principal crops with sugarcane rising in importance in the southernmost portion of the MLRA (USDA-NRCS, 2022).

Due to its size and biophysical variability, the Technical Team advised subdividing the MLRA into six subregions: Western Lowlands, St. Francis Basin, Yazoo Basin, Tensas Basin, Delta Plain, and Batture.

LRU notes

There are no agency-approved and established Land Resource Units (LRUs) for MLRA 131A. However, the characteristics of each of the six subregions in this MLRA warrant noting and are presented here for each associated ecological site. This provisional ecological site is broadly mapped within the Yazoo Basin.

The Yazoo Basin is in northwest Mississippi and is the largest tributary basin within MLRA 131A. The MLRA boundary of the basin extends some 200 miles (north to south) from Memphis, Tennessee to Vicksburg, Mississippi; is about 60 miles wide (east to west) at its widest point; encompasses roughly 7,600 square miles; and is bounded by the Loess Hills to the east and the current Mississippi River channel to the west (Saucier, 1994; Klimas et al., 2011). Elevations range from 210 feet in the northern portions of the basin to about 85 feet in the south near Vicksburg (Kirchner et al., 1992).

The basin’s geomorphic features are dominated by abandoned Mississippi River meander belts and backswamp environments. The higher elevations of natural levees and point bar deposits (meander scrolls) form an alluvial ridge, which directs local drainage and floodwaters to the intervening flood basins or backswamps. Additional meander belt landforms that are quite common include abandoned channels (oxbow lakes) and courses (Saucier, 1994; Klimas et al., 2011). A minor feature of the Yazoo Basin is the Pleistocene-age valley train terraces, which comprise less than 5 percent of the total area (Saucier, 1994).

The movement of water through the Yazoo Basin is heavily influenced and controlled by the complex sequence of abandoned Mississippi River meander belts and distributary channels. Most surface water originates as precipitation (Berkowitz et al., 2020) or runoff from the uplands to the east, which are conveyed by the Coldwater, Yocona, Tallahatchie, and Yalobusha rivers in addition to several smaller streams. These systems, along with streams draining the interior portions of the basin (e.g., Big Sunflower River, Bogue Phalia, and the distributary Deer Creek), all flow to the only significant outlet for the basin, the Yazoo River, which enters the Mississippi River near Vicksburg (Saucier, 1994; Klimas et al., 2011).

Historically, large floods on the Mississippi River and in the Yazoo tributary system inundated most, if not all, of the Yazoo Basin (Moore, 1972). These periodic floods and the ponding aftereffects oftentimes lasted for very long durations (Berkowitz et al., 2020), delivering nutrient-rich sediments that were critical to the production and maintenance of the dominant natural vegetation, bottomland hardwood forests (Taylor et al., 1990; MMNS, 2015). Since settlement, the biophysical environment of the area has been vastly altered. Perhaps the most notable change entails extensive modification of the basin’s natural hydrology, which includes hundreds of miles of constructed levees along the mainstem of the Mississippi River and basin tributaries; channel modifications on many streams; water control structures; land leveled areas; and an extensive network of surface drainage systems (Kirchner et al., 1992). Even with these measures, widespread backwater flooding occurs in the southern portion of the area (Yazoo Backwater Area) when high stages are reached on the Mississippi River. The extensive modifications to the basin’s hydrology coupled with increased access (Hudson, 1979) set the stage for broadscale conversion of former forestland to a variety of land uses with agriculture production being dominant. Today, bottomland hardwood forests cover roughly 10 percent of the original forest area (Smith and Klimas, 2002).

The geographic distribution of all ecological sites within the Yazoo Basin is bounded to the west by an extensive, mainline levee system. Throughout its length, the constructed levee generally occurs within the current Mississippi River meander belt and is situated to the east of the active river channel. All lands between the river channel and the constructed levee are referred to as the Batture, and that subregion encapsulates its own complement of ecological sites due to significantly different hydrologic regimes (Smith and Klimas, 2002).

Classification relationships

All or portions of the geographic range of this site fall within several ecological and land classifications including:
- NRCS Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 131A – Southern Mississippi River Alluvium (USDA-NRCS, 2006a)
- National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units: 234 Lower Mississippi Riverine Forest Province; 234D White and Black River Alluvial Plains Section; 234Da North Mississippi River Alluvial Plain Subsection (Cleland et al., 2007)
- Environmental Protection Agency Level III Ecoregion: 8.5.2 Mississippi Alluvial Plain, 73; Level IV Ecoregion: Northern Holocene Meander Belt, 73a (Chapman et al., 2004; Wiken et al., 2011)
- Mississippi River High Floodplain (Bottomland), CES203.196 (NatureServe, 2020)
- White Oaks – Red Oaks – Other Hardwoods (Putnam, 1951)
- Swamp Chestnut Oak – Cherrybark Oak (Society of American Foresters, SAF, Type No. 91; Eyre, 1980)
- The following are hydrogeomorphic subclass, geomorphic setting, and potential natural vegetation association that dominantly coincides to or geometrically intersects the soil polygons of this ecological site (developed by Klimas et al., 2011): F1, High natural levees, Cottonwood – Water Oak – Sugarberry; F3, Well drained older alluvium in lowlands, Cherrybark Oak – Water Oak – Cow Oak

Ecological site concept

This ecological site is broadly distributed in the Yazoo Basin where it primarily occurs on the higher positions of older natural levees and meander scroll ridges that borders former channels of the Mississippi River. Secondarily, the soils of this site are mapped sporadically on natural levees of active Mississippi River tributaries and the distributary, Deer Creek and on higher interfluves of remnant glacial outwash channels on Late Pleistocene valley train terraces. Slopes associated with the higher positions of this site generally range from 0 to 8 percent. Soils are very deep, well drained to moderately well drained that formed in loamy alluvium. A key characteristic of these soils is the prominent profile development as determined by distinct argillic (clay) accumulations in the subsoil (B horizon). Soil reactions generally range from very strongly acid to moderately acid. The higher, drier soils of this group are quite productive and support a broad range of species including water oak (Quercus nigra), swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxii), cherrybark oak (Q pagoda), bottomland post oak (Q. similis), Shumard’s oak (Q. shumardii), hickory (Carya spp.), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), and winged elm (Ulmus alata). Of note, this site occurs on the protected side of the extensive Mississippi River levee system.

Associated sites

F131AY305MS	Yazoo - Old Sandy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll Ridge Forest This site occurs on slightly higher positions than the adjoining Old Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll site (F131AY306MS). These adjacent sites primarily occur on former Mississippi River meander belts and on natural levees of active Mississippi River tributaries.
F131AY307MS	Yazoo - Old Moderately Wet Natural Levee and Meander Scroll Ridge Forest This site occurs on slightly lower positions than the adjoining Old Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll site (F131AY306MS). These adjacent sites primarily occur on former Mississippi River meander belts and on natural levees of active Mississippi River tributaries.

F131AY305MS

Yazoo - Old Sandy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll Ridge Forest

This site occurs on slightly higher positions than the adjoining Old Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll site (F131AY306MS). These adjacent sites primarily occur on former Mississippi River meander belts and on natural levees of active Mississippi River tributaries.

F131AY307MS

Yazoo - Old Moderately Wet Natural Levee and Meander Scroll Ridge Forest

This site occurs on slightly lower positions than the adjoining Old Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll site (F131AY306MS). These adjacent sites primarily occur on former Mississippi River meander belts and on natural levees of active Mississippi River tributaries.

Similar sites

F131AY406LA	Tensas Basin - Natural Levees and Ridge Hardwoods This site occupies similar positions and has similar drainage characteristics as the Old Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll site (F131AY306MS). The principal difference is that the latter occurs within the Yazoo Basin and F131AY406LA is confined to the Tensas Basin.
F131AY504LA	Delta Plain - Natural Levees and Ridge Hardwoods This site occupies similar positions and has similar drainage characteristics as the Old Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll site (F131AY306MS). The principal difference is that the latter occurs within the Yazoo Basin and F131AY504LA is confined to the Delta Plain.
F131AY209AR	St. Francis - Old Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll Forest This site occupies similar positions and has similar drainage characteristics as the Old Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll site (F131AY306MS). The principal difference is that the latter occurs within the Yazoo Basin and F131AY209AR occurs in the St. Francis Basin.
F131AY605MS	Batture - Frequently Flooded Natural Levee and Ridge Forest This site supports soils with similar drainage characteristics (e.g., Robinsonville soils) that occur on similar geomorphic features and positions as F131AY306MS, but they differ dramatically in their ages and time periods of deposition. The soils of F131AY605MS are of recent origin and undergoing active deposition, whereas the soils of F131AY306MS are much older, more weathered, and have reactions that can be very strongly acid. Some locations have been abandoned by the parent stream for millennia. Conversely, site F131AY605MS occurs within the active floodway and associated floodplain of the current Mississippi River channel.
F131AY310MS	Yazoo - Recent Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll Ridge Forest This site supports soils with similar drainage characteristics that occur on similar geomorphic features as site F131AY306MS, but the sites differ dramatically in their ages and time periods of deposition. The soils of F131AY310MS are of recent origin, whereas the soils of F131AY306MS are much older, more weathered, and have reactions that can be very strongly acid. Some locations have been abandoned by the parent stream for millennia. One characteristic that they have in common is that both occur on the protected side of the constructed levee system.

Figure 1. Distribution of F131AY306MS.

Table 2. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	Not specified

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Physiographic features

This ecological site is broadly mapped throughout the Yazoo Basin. It primarily occurs on the higher positions of old natural levees and meander scroll ridges that border former channels of the Mississippi River. Additionally, the soils of this site have been mapped sporadically on natural levees and stream corridors of active tributaries to the Mississippi River and the higher interfluves among remnant glacial outwash channels. The latter are geomorphic features that occur on Late Pleistocene valley train terraces. On some landforms, such as former meander scrolls, the terrain may undertake a gently undulating pattern – the characteristic “ridge and swale” topography – with soils of this site occupying the higher positions.

Figure 1. Old Mississippi River meander belt catena. Dubbs series is representative of F131AY306MS.

Figure 2. Dubbs landscape (old natural levee) at OSD TP site, Tallahatchie Co., MS.

Table 3. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Meander belt > Natural levee > Rise (2) Meander belt > Meander scroll > Rise (3) Alluvial plain > Terrace > Rise
Runoff class	Low to high
Flooding duration	Brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	None to rare
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	100 – 210 ft
Slope	0 – 8 %
Water table depth	29 – 30 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

Climate of the Yazoo Basin is classified as Humid Subtropical (Koppen System), which is typified by mostly mild winters; long, hot and humid summers; and no routinely recurring wet or dry season (Smith and Klimas, 2002; NCDC, 2018). The average annual air temperature from 1980 through 2010 was 64 degrees F and the mean annual precipitation for the same period was 55 inches.

In the warmer season (and throughout much of the year), winds from the south convey moisture from the gulf leading to humid, semitropical conditions that are favorable for afternoon thunderstorms. These storms produce an average of about 25 percent of the area’s annual precipitation and are at times accompanied by locally destructive winds. A potential hazard during late summer through early fall is the tropical cyclone. While most impacts from hurricanes and tropical storms are confined along the coastal zone, heavy rainfall, severe flooding, and high winds can occur well into the basin when such systems pass through the area. To the extreme, the region is susceptible to the effects of a strong Bermuda High during the summer, which can cause devastating drought conditions for weeks and even months in some years. From 1980 through 2010, August and September were the driest months with a characteristic average monthly low of 2.5 and 2.8 inches, respectively. The hottest months of the year were July and August with characteristic average highs of 91 to 92 degrees and lows of around 72 degrees F.

In the colder season, the area’s weather is dominated by the positions of the Polar and Subtropical Jet Streams, both of which exerts strong control over the passages of cold and warm fronts. These fronts alternately bring cold continental air and warm tropical air with periods of varying length. Particularly strong cold fronts can produce large and sudden drops in air temperature; however, cold spells seldom last over a week (NCDC, 2018). The coldest month of the year is typically January with an average monthly low and high of 33 and 52 degrees, respectively. The frost-free period from 1980 to 2010 averaged 207 days basin-wide and ranged from 200 days in the northern areas to 216 days in the south. Likewise, the freeze-free period averaged 241 days and ranged from 238 in the north to 246 days in the southern part of the basin.

Snow and/or sleet falls in the area in most years with the greatest frequency and accumulations occurring in the northern extent of the basin. Winter precipitation sometimes occurs as freezing rain and damaging ice storms hit some portion of the basin on occasion. However, these wintry events are generally the exception; they are typically brief and do not persist for very long. Rain is the characteristic form of winter precipitation, and the period of greatest rainfall generally occurs from November through June with March and April being the months of greatest frequency (NCDC, 2018). Precipitation for this period typically ranges from 4.5 to around 6.0 inches per month.

Table 4 Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	200-220 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	240-250 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	50-60 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	200-220 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	230-250 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	50-60 in
Frost-free period (average)	210 days
Freeze-free period (average)	240 days
Precipitation total (average)	60 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 8 Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) TUNICA 2 N [USC00228998], Tunica, MS
(2) YAZOO CITY 5 NNE [USC00229860], Yazoo City, MS
(3) CLEVELAND 3 N [USC00221743], Cleveland, MS
(4) MINTER CITY [USC00225897], Minter City, MS
(5) CHARLESTON [USC00221606], Charleston, MS
(6) CLARKSDALE [USC00221707], Clarksdale, MS
(7) MOORHEAD [USC00226009], Moorhead, MS
(8) GREENVILLE [USC00223605], Greenville, MS
(9) LAMBERT 1W [USC00224869], Lambert, MS
(10) ROLLING FORK [USC00227560], Rolling Fork, MS
(11) STONEVILLE EXP STA [USC00228445], Leland, MS
(12) GREENWOOD LEFLORE AP [USW00013978], Carrollton, MS
(13) LAKE PROVIDENCE [USC00165090], Lake Providence, LA
(14) BELZONI [USC00220660], Belzoni, MS
(15) CLEVELAND [USC00221738], Cleveland, MS

Influencing water features

This site occurs on the highest positions of old natural levees, meander scroll ridges, and interfluves among remnant outwash channels. Today, this site occurs on the protected side of the extensive Mississippi River levee system and no longer receives overland flooding on the same scale that it may have experienced prior to levee construction. For the most part, the location or position of this site is high enough in elevation that it does not flood on a frequent or predictable basis. In general, this site does not support wetland species and does not qualify as supporting hydric conditions or meeting “wetland determination” criteria.

Soil features

Please note that the soils listed in this section of the description may not be all-inclusive. There may be additional soils that fit the site’s concepts. Additionally, the soils that provisionally form the concepts of this site may occur elsewhere, either within or outside of the MLRA and may or “may not” have the same geomorphic characteristics or support similar vegetation. Some soil map units and soil series included in this “provisional” ecological site were used as a “best fit” for a particular soil-landform catena during a specific era of soil mapping, regardless of the origin of parent material or the location of MLRA boundaries. Therefore, the listed soils may not be typical for MLRA 131A or a specific location, and the associated soil map units may warrant further investigation in a joint ecological site inventory-soil survey project. When utilizing this provisional description, the user is encouraged to verify that the area of interest meets the appropriate ecological site concepts by reviewing the soils, landform, vegetation, and physical location. If the site concepts do not match the attributes of the area of interest, please review the Similar or Associated Sites listed in the General Information section of this description to determine if another site may be a better fit for your area of interest.

This site is characterized by very deep, well drained and moderately well drained soils that formed in loamy alluvium. A key characteristic of these soils is the prominent profile development as determined by distinct argillic (clay) accumulations in the subsoil (B horizon). Soil reactions generally range from very strongly acid to moderately acid. Slopes associated with the higher positions of this site generally range from 0 to 8 percent.

Several different soil series comprise this site including both active and one inactive series. The dominant soils of the site are the Dubbs (fine-silty, mixed, active, thermic Typic Hapludalfs) series. Dubbs soils are well drained and have base saturation (by sum of cations) from 65 to 80 percent at depths of 50 inches below the upper boundary of the B horizon.

The next most commonly mapped soils of the site are the Bosket (fine-loamy, mixed, active, thermic Mollic Hapludalfs) series. Bosket soils are well drained and have a mollic epipedon. However, many areas that were mapped Bosket may no longer support the mollic surface layer either due to erosion and detrimental landuse practices or to landleveling. Some areas formerly mapped Bosket may in fact be Teksob (fine-loamy, mixed, active, thermic Typic Hapludalfs) soils due to loss of the mollic epipedon of Bosket soils (R. Stout-Evans, personal communication). Teksob soils are well drained with surface textures of fine sandy loam, sandy loam, or loam.

Additional soils include the Askew (fine-silty, mixed, active, thermic Aquic Hapludalfs), Dexter (fine-silty, mixed, active, thermic Ultic Hapludalfs), and Tutwiler (coarse-silty, mixed, active, thermic Typic Hapludalfs) series. Askew soils are moderately well drained with a perched water table at a depth of 2 to 3 feet during winter to early spring in most years (USDA-NRCS, 2006b). Dexter soils are well drained and in a fine-silty family – contrasting with Tutwiler soils, which are coarse-silty.

The single inactive series associated with the site consists of Pearson soils, which formed in silty alluvium. Pearson soils were described as moderately well drained, strongly to moderately acid, and often mapped in areas consisting of a 2 to 5 foot silt mantle over sand. Where the Pearson soils are mapped on natural levees, transects of pedons best fit the established Dubbs soil series.

Figure 9. Profile of the Dubbs series; OSD Typical Pedon, Tallahatchie Co., MS.

Figure 10. Profile of the Teksob series, Sunflower Co., MS.

Figure 11. Dubbs landscape at the OSD TP site - natural levee, Tallahatchie County, MS.

Table 5. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium
Surface texture	(1) Clay loam (2) Fine sandy loam (3) Loam (4) Silt loam (5) Silty clay loam (6) Very fine sandy loam
Drainage class	Moderately well drained to well drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to rapid
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (Depth not specified)	4.6 – 8.7 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (Depth not specified)	Not specified
Electrical conductivity (Depth not specified)	Not specified
Sodium adsorption ratio (Depth not specified)	Not specified
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (Depth not specified)	4.7 – 5.9
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (40in)	Not specified
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (40in)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

Historically, this ecological site was part of a vast forested landscape with processes and functions directly connected to the highly dynamic nature of the Mississippi River (Gardiner and Oliver, 2005). Today, this site is effectively disconnected from the Mississippi River via the vast network of constructed levees and, in many areas, local drainage controls. Widespread changes to the landscape occurred long before any intensive studies of the historic natural communities were conducted. Accordingly, reference conditions of this ecological site are still under review and consideration.

Utilizing the description of forest types from Putnam (1951), the soil survey manuscript of Sunflower County, Mississippi (USDA-SCS, 1959) indicated that Putnam’s “white oaks – red oaks – other hardwoods” type as occurring on “…coarser textured soils of the old natural levees.” That association in the survey manuscript suggests that Putnam’s forest type either occurs solely on this site or shares forest components with the adjoining Old Sandy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll Ridge Forest (site ID: F131AY305MS). Important or key species comprising the type include swamp chestnut oak, white oak, bottomland post oak (known locally as Delta post oak), cherrybark oak, Shumard’s oak, southern red oak, white ash, hickory, blackgum, and winged elm (Putnam, 1951). Additional forest associates that are important components in some locations include sweetgum, water oak, willow oak, and American elm (Eyre, 1980; MMNS, 2015). Putnam (1951) added that this association produces some of the highest valued species and products among the southern bottomland forest types.

Putnam’s white oaks – red oaks – other hardwoods type was later absorbed into more broadly accepted forest types such as the swamp chestnut oak – cherrybark oak type (Society of American Foresters, SAF, Type No. 91; Eyre, 1980) or simply renamed the red oak – white oak – mixed species association (see Meadows and Stanturf, 1997) or the oak – mixed hardwood ridge bottom forest (see MMNS, 2015). The diversity of tree species and other community associates are reportedly high for this system (NatureServe, 2020). Meadows and Stanturf (1997) regards this forest association as a late sere in the succession of southern bottomland forests, whereas others consider it a climax community (e.g., Eyre, 1980; Hodges, 1997).

Identifying a precise forest association on this site is challenging given the productivity of the soils coupled with differing ecological sites occurring in close proximity. Components and/or variants of other forest types such as the sweetgum – red oaks and the elm – ash – sugarberry associations (see Meadows and Stanturf, 1997 for brief descriptions) may converge on this site forming complex species patterns (Hodges, 1995). Such complexities may also be due to former landuse histories in addition to contrasting soil-site environments being juxtaposed.

Overall, forest cover on this site is minor compared to other uses. Most areas have been cleared and are used extensively for row crop production. Some areas have been land leveled to meet irrigation needs. A secondary use on this site is pasturage.

Following this narrative, a “provisional” state and transition model is provided that includes the “perceived” reference state and several alternative (or altered) vegetation states that have been observed and/or projected for this ecological site. This model is based on limited inventories, literature, expert knowledge, and interpretations. Plant communities may differ from one location to the next depending on the severity of local land use activities and rates of deposition. Depending on objectives, the reference plant community may not necessarily be the management goal.

The environmental and biological characteristics of this site are complex and dynamic. As such, the following diagram suggests pathways that the vegetation on this site might take, given that the modal concepts of climate and soils are met within an area of interest. Specific locations with unique soils and disturbance histories may have alternate pathways that are not represented in the model. This information is intended to show the possibilities within a given set of circumstances and represents the initial steps toward developing a defensible description and model. The model and associated information are subject to change as knowledge increases and new information is garnered. This is an iterative process. Most importantly, local and/or state professional guidance should always be sought before pursuing a treatment scenario.

State and transition model

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T1A	-	Manipulate composition and manage for production (Community 2.1); Heavy timber cutting or repeated partial harvests with no management (Community 2.2)
T1B	-	Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); preparation for cultivation
T1C	-	Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); seedbed preparation; establishment of desired forage; manage for grazing
T2A	-	Reestablish missing species; control exotics (mechanical/chemical); timber stand improvement; natural stand dynamics
T2B	-	Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); preparation for cultivation
T2C	-	Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); seedbed preparation; establishment of desired forage; manage for grazing
T3A	-	Precision land leveling
T3B	-	Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); seedbed preparation; establishment of desired forage; manage for grazing
T3C	-	Natural succession (Community 6.1) or prep area (plow pan breakup, fertilizing, etc.) and plant species appropriate for site (Afforestation - Community 6.2)
T3D	-	Establish select native species suitable for site; prepare for planting (herbicide and/or mechanical)
T5A	-	Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); preparation for cultivation
T5B	-	Natural succession (Community 6.1) or prep area (plow pan breakup, fertilizing, etc.) and plant species appropriate for site (Afforestation - Community 6.2)
T5C	-	Establish select native species suitable for site; prepare for planting (herbicide and/or mechanical)
T6A	-	Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); preparation for cultivation
T6B	-	Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); seedbed preparation; establishment of desired forage; manage for grazing.
T7A	-	Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); preparation for cultivation
T7B	-	Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); seedbed preparation; establishment of desired forage; manage for grazing
T7C	-	Natural succession (Community 6.1) or prep area (plow pan breakup, fertilizing, etc.) and plant species appropriate for site (Afforestation - Community 6.2)

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Mixed Bottomland Hardwoods

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Forest Management

2.2. Non-managed/High-graded

2.1A	-	Cessation of management followed by heavy cutting or repeated partial harvests
2.2A	-	Silvicultural treatments: removal of undesirable species; re-establish species favored in management; timber stand improvement; establish advance regeneration

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Conservation Management

3.2. Transitional Conservation Management

3.3. Conventional Management

3.1A	-	Soil disturbance (tillage); reduction of soil health.
3.1B	-	Conventional tillage, seeding, and fertility management for crops.
3.2A	-	No-till, cover crops, reduced till-soil health improvements.
3.2B	-	Conventional tillage, seeding, and fertility management for crops.
3.3A	-	Reduced till, no-till, and cover crops with soil health improvements as a goal.

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Land Leveled Cropland

State 5 submodel, plant communities

5.1. Monoculture Grassland

5.2. Mixed Species System

5.3. Mixed Species, Non-seeded

5.4. Early Woody Succession

5.1A	-	Seeding and/or management for desired species composition.
5.1B	-	Species management without overseeding.
5.2A	-	Seeding, fertilizing, management/removal of undesirable species.
5.2B	-	Species management without overseeding
5.3A	-	Seeding, fertilizing, management/removal of undesirable species.
5.3B	-	Seeding and/or management for desired species composition.
5.3C	-	Lack of disturbance; no (infrequent) mowing, herbivory, or brush management; natural succession of woody species.
5.4A	-	Brush management/removal of unwanted species.

State 6 submodel, plant communities

6.1. Ruderal/Opportunistic Regrowth

6.2. Afforestation

6.1A	-	Remove undesirable competitors; final soil preparation; establish site-appropriate species (favored in management).

State 7 submodel, plant communities

7.1. Pollinator Planting/Native Grasses

State 1
Reference: Loamy Bottomland Forest

Removal of the pre-settlement natural communities of this site occurred long before thorough studies and investigations were conducted. Furthermore, the hydroperiod and drainage patterns of the pre-settlement landscape have since been dramatically altered. Great variability is likely to occur throughout the distribution of this ecological site. Local soils and hydrologic regimes will have been influenced by the environment they occur within, in addition to former landuse histories. Such complexity across the Yazoo Basin will likely be reflected in much variability in vegetation composition and structure of local stands (Stanturf et al., 2001). Accordingly, reference conditions for this site have yet to be confirmed, but they are perceived to consist of mature forest stands that support a diverse mix of southern bottomland hardwoods adapted to the moderately well and well drained soils of this site. Once assigned or identified, the reference community will not represent the pre-settlement forest community, but it should identify an assemblage of naturally occurring species that reflects and contributes to regional biodiversity and local forest ecology. Implicated in the latter is that the “local” geomorphic features and drainage patterns of this soil-site environment should not have been drastically altered or removed (e.g., land leveled).

The return or transition pathway from the altered states (currently, only State 2) back to reference conditions is intended to represent the suite of hardwood species that, reportedly, frequently to occasionally occur and are favored in management on this site (see Broadfoot, 1976 for Askew soils). Realistically, it may not always be possible to return to a “perceived” reference state from a former altered condition. While planting and establishing trees appropriate for a site may be possible, achieving restoration of the understory and other system functions present challenges that may never be realized (Stanturf et al., 2001; Flinn and Vellend, 2005).

Community 1.1
Mixed Bottomland Hardwoods

One community that reportedly occurs on this site is Putnam’s (1951) “white oaks – red oaks – other hardwoods” forest type. This is corroborated by the soil survey manuscript for Sunflower County, Mississippi (USDA-SCS, 1959), and this community may be representative of reference conditions. Characteristic species of the type include swamp chestnut oak, white oak, bottomland post oak, cherrybark oak, Shumard’s oak, southern red oak, white ash, hickory, blackgum, and winged elm (Putnam, 1951). This list of species coincides with the swamp chestnut oak – cherrybark oak forest type (SAF No. 91) in Eyre (1980). Additional components of the type that may be locally important or dominant in some cases are sweetgum, water oak, willow oak, green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), American elm and sugarberry (Celtis laevigata) (Eyre, 1980; MMNS, 2015). Nuttall oak (Quercus texana), which is generally associated with wetter sites, is listed by some as an additional component of this site (Broadfoot, 1976; Meadows and Stanturf, 1997). Meadows and Stanturf (1997) emphasized that hickory may represent the largest non-oak component in some stands. Hickory reportedly occurring in this community include shagbark (Carya ovata), shellbark (C. laciniosa), mockernut (C. tomentosa), and bitternut (C. cordiformis). Understory components may consist of pawpaw (Asimina triloba), American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), and possumhaw (Ilex decidua) (Eyre, 1980). Ground cover is reportedly dense and diverse with herbaceous components consisting of sedges (Carex spp.) and various grasses and forbs including dense growths of the fabled giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea) within some canopy openings. Vines can be prevalent in the understory and may be represented by eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) (NatureServe, 2020).

Broadfoot (1976) provided a list of species that are favored in management and that occur frequently or occasionally on one of the principal soils of this site, the moderately well drained Askew soils. The following are species favored in management and that frequently occur on Askew soils (per Broadfoot, 1976) with estimated site index ranges (tree height in feet at 50 years except cottonwood which is 30 years) in parentheses: cherrybark oak (95 to 115), water oak (90 to 110), willow oak (90 to 110), and sweetgum (90 to 110). The following are site index ranges of species favored in management that occasionally occur on Askew soils: green ash (70 to 90), eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides, 90 to 110), hickory (75 to 95), Nuttall oak (90 to 110), Shumard oak (95 to 115), swamp chestnut oak (80 to 100), pecan (Carya illinoinensis, 85 to 105), and American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis, 100 to 120).

Note that the arrangement of tree species listed in the Dominant Plant Species table below follows the same order of importance as indicated in Putnam (1951).

Dominant plant species

swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii), tree
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
bottomland post oak (Quercus similis), tree
cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda), tree
Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), tree
southern red oak (Quercus falcata), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
pawpaw (Asimina triloba), shrub
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), shrub
possumhaw (Ilex decidua), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea), shrub

State 2
Commercial Forestland

This state consists of two very different community phases and management approaches. Community Phase 2.1 represents forest management and production on this site. A distinguishing feature of this phase is the level of management intensity designed to maximize merchantable goals. Various silvicultural methods are available for selection, and these are generally grouped into even-aged (e.g., clearcutting, seed-tree, and shelterwood) and uneven-aged (e.g., single tree, diameter-limit, basal area, and group selection) approaches (Meadows and Stanturf, 1997). Depending on the method selected, different structural and compositional characteristics of the stand may result. Removal and control of community associates are typically a critical element of production goals. These actions may result in different community or “management phases” (and possibly alternate states) depending on the methods used and desired results. Finding the appropriate approach for a given stand and environment necessitates close consultation with trained, experienced, and knowledgeable forestry professionals. If there is a desire to proceed with this state, it is strongly urged and advised that professional guidance be obtained and a well-designed silvicultural plan developed in advance of any work conducted.

Community Phase 2.2 represents conditions of many stands that have incurred indiscriminate timber harvests (e.g., heavy cutting or diameter-limit harvests of select species) and opportunistic regrowth following such harvests (i.e., no management at any period). Some stands may continue to support a few desirable species and quality stems, but in many instances, affected stands will be comprised of mostly shade tolerant species or trees of desirable species that fail to meet their maximum potential. (Because of the intensive management required to rehabilitate affected stands, this community phase may warrant elevation to a standalone state. This should be considered in future iterations of this site’s development.)

This site is well suited for forest production with very few limitations. Where this site occurs in complex or contact with wetter ecological sites, seasonal wetness and periods of heavy precipitation can impose some limitations on heavy equipment usage. If possible, equipment operations are best conducted during drier periods of the year, which minimizes soil damage, erosion, and helps to maintain productivity. Perhaps the most significant limitation is the inherent productivity of the soils. This can contribute to intense plant competition and even exclusion of targeted (desirable) trees if management of the stand becomes relaxed or is not pursued.

An important caveat of this state is its representation of forest conditions that have retained full site production potential. Currently, transitional pathways to this state originate from another forested state (State 1), only. Former land uses (alternate states) that result in soil compaction (increased bulk densities), lower soil organic matter content, altered fertility, and smaller available rooting volume can reduce forest site productivity by 10 to 20 percent, if not more, for some species (Groninger et al., 1999). These impacts are perhaps most pronounced on poorly drained, clayey soils. The higher and better drained loamy soils of this site likely will not have the deleterious impacts to tree productivity on the same scale as the latter. Still, the combined effects of intensive, long-term cultivation (e.g., moderately compacted soils, plow pan presence, reduced fertility, and low organic matter content) on the well-developed soils of this site can lower site productivity for some species (see Baker and Broadfoot, 1979). These impacts, however, can be ameliorated through various “afforestation” techniques such as plow pan breakup (subsoil or deep plowing), fertilization, and fallowing fields before stand establishment (Emile Gardiner, USFS Research Forester, personal communication with Rachel Stout Evans, contributing author). State 6 (Forest Recovery) is representative of forest establishment and growth on locations where soil compaction and reduction of nutrients have occurred. Once a previously affected location has recovered its site potential, transition to this state may be possible. That potential transition is still under review and is currently not shown or addressed in the state and transition model.

Community 2.1
Forest Management

Prescribing a silvicultural system for a given stand depends on species composition; long term production and postproduction goals; and the presence and abundance of advance regeneration (i.e., the presence of seedlings and saplings of the desired species). The canopy trees listed in State 1 as “favored in management” are all production options on this site ranging from single species plantations to complex multi-species stands. (Species favored in management are indicated below under the "Dominant tree species" section for convenience.)

Establishing and maintaining oaks on bottomland sites may be preferred given the multiple values they provide (e.g., timber and wildlife). However, maintaining that component beyond a single rotation (or harvest) may be the most challenging. Creating conditions that promote oak persistence in future stands require a sufficient advance regeneration component. Ensuring that this future crop is established will require close adherence to a well-designed silvicultural plan, which requires programmatic intermediate operations (e.g., improvement cuttings, thinnings, and other partial cuttings). An even-aged silvicultural system that utilizes the clearcutting regeneration method along with brush management to reduce subsequent competition is typically the advocated approach when harvesting bottomland oak stands (Johnson and Shropshire, 1983; Clatterbuck and Meadows, 1993; Hodges, 1995; Meadows and Stanturf, 1997; Oliver et al., 2005).

Except pecan, the remaining trees that are favored in management are light-seeded species. Various silvicultural systems may be implemented to promote production of these species including even-aged and group selection (uneven-aged) approaches (see Meadows and Stanturf, 1997).

Dominant plant species

cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda), tree
water oak (Quercus nigra), tree
willow oak (Quercus phellos), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
Nuttall oak (Quercus texana), tree
Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), tree
swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii), tree
American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree

Community 2.2
Non-managed/High-graded

This forest community is directly influenced by former harvesting practices that include repeated single-tree selection and/or diameter-limit harvests with no additional management activities (e.g., brush management, competitor control, etc.). These practices typically target the highest quality trees of the most desirable species. The result is usually an expansion and in-filling of shade tolerant subcanopy trees. Over time, this practice will lead to a predominantly shade tolerant community that may be comprised of American elm, winged elm, hickory, blackgum, boxelder (Acer negundo), American hornbeam, roughleaf dogwood, possumhaw, and possibly sugarberry, although reportedly rare on ridges of older alluvium (Putnam et al., 1960).

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Heavy cutting of the stand that removes the desired species (typically shade intolerant species) of sufficient diameters followed by no management of the residual stand. This pathway also includes repeated single-tree harvests (e.g., diameter-limit cuts) that removes the desired species followed by no management of the residual stand. The resulting stand is typically comprised of shade tolerant species with low commercial value.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Intensive management will be required to push a shade tolerant community into a more commercially desirable and viable system. Actions will likely require a complete clearcut of the stand followed by repeated brush and competitor control (chemical and mechanical). If there is a lack of seed source, artificial regeneration will likely be required to reintroduce heavy-seeded species (e.g., oaks). Continual competitor control will be needed.

State 3
Cropland

This state is representative of the dominant land use activity on this ecological site, agriculture production. The dominant crops grown on this site are cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), corn (Zea mays), soybeans (Glycine max) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) (Snipes et al., 2005; USDA-NRCS, 2006b). Minor crops, such as some specialty crops (e.g., fruits, vegetables, and tree nuts such as pecans), may be grown locally.

The soils of this site are well suited to agriculture production. Tilth is reportedly good with a surface layer that is very friable and easily tilled and managed over a wide range of moisture content. Management concerns are largely centered on erosion, plow pan development, soil compaction under equipment traffic, crusting and packing following heavy rain, and low organic matter content (Snipes et al., 2005; USDA-NRCS, 2006b). Snipes et al. (2005) emphasized that the organic matter content of the soils of this site typically range from 0.5 to 2.0 percent with most concentrations within to 0.9 to 1.5 percent range. Each of these factors could affect yields or impede optimum operation. Management measures to ameliorate some of these issues may include implementing a conservation tillage or management system and subsoiling to breakup plow pans (USDA-NRCS, 2006b). Major components that producers generally develop and plan are proper selection of crop cultivar, pest control, cropping system, tillage methods, nutrient management, and water management (Snipes et al., 2005). Key practices of some cropping systems often include two or more crops grown in a multiyear rotation, which has been documented to disrupt pest cycles. Leaving crop residue on the surface can help to maintain tilth, fertility, and organic matter content – all critical elements of soil quality and health. For monoculture cropping systems, the implementation of well-designed pest and nutrient management systems are imperative (Pringle et al., 2017). (For assistance, interested parties are advised to visit their local NRCS Field Office.)

Three separate management phases comprise this state: Conservation Management (3.1), Transitional Conservation Management (3.2), and Conventional Management (3.3). The three phases consist of varying tillage methods and approaches to soil health management systems.

Community 3.1
Conservation Management

This cropland phase utilizes long term, continuous conservation management systems that include reduced till and cover crops; no-till with cover crops; crop residue retention; and perennial cropping systems. The guiding principles of this system are minimizing soil disturbance and maximizing soil cover, biodiversity, and the presence of living roots. Implementing diverse crop rotations while maintaining these principles can lend to the development of an integrated pest management plan and contribute to overall system resilience.

Of caution, the above-ground crop growth or yields may not be the best tracking mechanism for assessing the efficacy or presence of this management phase. Indicators of these systems are generally determined via soil-site assessments with outcomes that may include enhanced soil aggregate stability, increased soil biological activity, higher organic matter content, and improved water holding capacity and infiltration rates while also alleviating soil compaction and reducing runoff and erosion (Chessman et al., 2019). Additional advantages to this system that have been noted by some producers are reductions in fuel and labor costs and less wear and tear on machinery and equipment.

There are challenges to this management system, especially in situations where tillage may be considered and/or needed to repair weather damage or other detrimental impacts. Implementation of conventional tillage even after long term conservation practices (e.g., no-till) can reset the affected area back to a conventional cropping system. However, those changes can be reversed and a return to a conservation management system is achievable.

Critical conservation practices associated with this phase include cover crops, no-till, and reduced till as the foundational practices. Additionally, this phase may include supporting and site-specific practices to address conservation needs for a given location.

Community 3.2
Transitional Conservation Management

This cropland phase utilizes a hybrid approach that combines conventional methods with conservation practices at specific periods and under specific situations. Practices under this phase may include a combination of conventional till, reduced till, strip till, and the inclusion of cover crops. For instance, perennial crop species could be in a continuous transitional phase where conventional tillage is implemented at the time of planting followed by reduced tillage during the rotation. Planted forage crops could also be included in this phase, especially when part of a crop rotation that utilizes reduced tillage for one crop followed by conventional tillage for a succeeding crop.

The development, implementation, and refinement of nutrient and pest management plans throughout component operations are imperative. Additionally, this phase may include supporting and site-specific practices to address conservation needs for a given location.

Community 3.3
Conventional Management

This management phase is representative of conventional cropland where tillage is implemented as an annual component of the production system. As crucial elements of the system, conservation practices such as nutrient and pest management are needed to address fertility requirements and pest concerns within the crop cycle. It is important to note that this phase may develop when tillage is implemented to address damage or for other purposes while under a conservation management system (Community Phase 3.1). There could also be associated, supporting, and site-specific practices that are needed to address specific conservation needs. Specific needs may include grade stabilization structures to control gully erosion, grassed waterways to trap sediment from sheet and rill erosion, or implementing reduced till.

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

Soil disturbance (tillage); reduction of soil health.

Pathway 3.1B
Community 3.1 to 3.3

Conventional tillage, seeding, and fertility management for crops.

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1

No-till, cover crops, reduced till-soil health improvements.

Pathway 3.2B
Community 3.2 to 3.3

Conventional tillage, seeding, and fertility management for crops.

Pathway 3.3A
Community 3.3 to 3.2

Reduced till, no-till, and cover crops with soil health improvements as a goal.

State 4
Land Formed Cropland

This gently sloping to undulating ecological site typically adjoins nearly level to level landscapes. It is bordered by soils of varying textures and drainage characteristics. Accordingly, inconsistencies in wetness, ease of operation, and production or yields may occur across a cropped location. An increasingly common practice on this site consists of land forming or leveling surface irregularities into a predetermined and engineered, uniform slope. This practice removes the drier and higher features of this site, which are then used to fill wetter and lower positions (e.g., depressions or swales) across the targeted area. Advantages of land leveling may include reduced hazards of erosion and runoff rates, improved surface drainage, and enhanced distribution and conservation of irrigation water. Disadvantages of the practice is a churning of various surface and subsurface materials (former soil horizons) that no longer occur in a predictable or regular pattern. Organic matter content in the surface layer is generally low, and the surface tends to crust and pack after heavy rains (USDA-NRCS, 2006b). One potential hazard that appears to be emerging in some areas is an effective management of surface water runoff. As both irrigated and stormwater runs off leveled fields at uniform rates, surface water tends to collect cumulatively and simultaneously, which places tremendous demands on local drainage networks. Without “in field” structures (natural or artificial) to stagger runoff, the downslope (or lower) ends of some fields tend to back flood thereby contributing to more flooding overall in local watersheds (personal observations).

Immediately following land leveling, the constituent elements of soil health are likely to be absent. In some areas, producers have initiated practices such as applying organic residues (e.g., poultry litter) or growing rice crops for one to two years to rapidly boost fertility and introduce organic matter (via rice biomass) in the surface layer. Over time, the full complement of the management (or community) phases of State 3 may be possible on land leveled fields. They are not repeated or indicated here.

Currently, this state serves as an endpoint in the state and transition model because the ability to predict vegetation response when transitioning to a different state is no longer possible without soil-site investigations for each area of interest. The former soils of this ecological site, including surface and subsurface horizons, will have been redistributed as particles among other former soils.

Community 4.1
Land Leveled Cropland

Some of the crop species and management practices indicated and discussed in State 3 (including all three management phases) may be suitable for establishing on land leveled areas that once supported the soils of this site. However, the type of crops suited for newly leveled areas may ultimately depend on the prevailing soil particle-size distribution and internal drainage characteristics. Former studies on precision leveled fields have noted variabilities and inconsistencies in soil particle-size distributions, bulk density, soil biological properties, and nutrients (Brye et al., 2003; Walker et al., 2003; Brye et al., 2006). Management concerns for this phase may consist of restricted permeability, low organic matter content, and crusting and packing (USDA-NRCS, 2006b). These impacts may be improved by implementing conservation tillage, cover crops, retaining crop residue, and nutrient and pest management strategies.

State 5
Pastureland/Grassland

This state is representative of areas that have been converted to and maintained in pasture or grassland. In 1991, the soils of this site were placed in Pasture Suitability Group 8a for the State of Mississippi and are generally considered well suited to most commonly grown perennial forage species. Available water capacity is moderate to high, and production on this site is generally high when areas are adequately fertilized and properly managed. The very strongly to moderately acid reactions of these soils usually require lime for many forage species.

Given that this ecological site adjoins lower, wetter sites, some forage operations may utilize the higher elevations of this site as a protected area. This site may be suitable for the storage of harvested forage or holding of livestock when wet or flooded conditions occur on lower areas.

Establishing an effective pasture management program can help minimize degradation of the site and assist in maintaining growth of desired forage. An effective pasture management program includes selecting well-adapted grass and/or legume species that will grow and establish rapidly; maintaining proper soil pH and fertility levels; using controlled grazing practices; mowing at proper timing and stage of maturity; allowing new seedings to become well established before use; and renovating pastures when needed (Rhodes et al., 2005; Green et al., 2006).

This state consists of four community phases that represent a range of forage management options and pasture and hayland condition scenarios. Options range from establishing a forage monoculture for haying to a broad mixture of forage species for production and grazing. It is strongly advised that consultation with local NRCS Service Centers be sought when assistance is needed in developing management recommendations or prescribed grazing practices.

Community 5.1
Monoculture Grassland

This phase is mainly characterized by planting forage species for hay production. Forage plantings generally consist of a single grass species. Native and non-native forage species can be seeded. Forage is usually harvested as hay or haylage, although grazing may occur periodically. These sites are highly productive for forage and can provide ecological benefits to control soil erosion. Allowing for adequate rest and regrowth of desired species is required to maintain productivity. Maintenance of monoculture stands also requires control of unwanted species, which will require pest and nutrient management.

Generally, the application of fertilizer and lime is needed to establish and maintain improved desirable pastures. Exceptions do occur for bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum) and common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), which can be sustained under natural fertility and pH levels. Introduced grasses, such as hybrid bermudagrass, require a higher level of sustained fertility, pH above 6.0, and good surface drainage to persist. An additional measure to aid production may include prescribed grazing. Implementing limited and monitored grazing can promote deeper root penetration of grasses with the added benefit of greater nutrient and moisture uptake. This synergistic approach can lead to increased production of and may sustain desirable forages.

Conservation practices should include prescribed grazing, or forage harvest management, nutrient and pest management, and potentially other site-specific practices.

Dominant plant species

Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), grass
bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), grass
dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), grass

Community 5.2
Mixed Species System

This community is characterized by mixed species composition of grasses and legumes. Components of this forage system are either planted or they established naturally. Typically, perennial warm-season grasses are the foundation of the stand that are periodically overseeded with adapted cool-season forages. The latter creates an added benefit of extending the grazing season. This community phase can be highly productive for grazing and haying operations and can provide beneficial habitat for some wildlife species.

Maintenance of grass stands also requires a series of management practices such as prescribed grazing, brush management, pest management, and nutrient management to maintain production of the desired species. Prescribed grazing includes maintaining proper grazing or forage heights, timing, and stocking rates. Supporting or facilitating practices such as fences, water lines, and watering facilities could be part of the system that maintains this phase.

Dominant plant species

Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), grass
bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), grass
dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), grass
white clover (Trifolium repens), other herbaceous
red clover (Trifolium pratense), other herbaceous
crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum), other herbaceous

Community 5.3
Mixed Species, Non-seeded

This community is characterized by a mixture of native and naturalized non-native species. Forage is usually grazed and/or harvested as stored forage, hay or haylage. Common established species may include Bermudagrass, bahiagrass, dallisgrass, and carpetgrass (Axonopus sp.).

Stands are generally productive, and forage and grazing management can maintain the community. Healthy stands provide additional benefits by protecting soils from excessive runoff and erosion. However, a common peril associated with this phase is overgrazing, which lowers production and favors less palatable weedy species, especially in areas where livestock congregate. Proper stocking rates or grazing systems that allow for adequate rest and plant regrowth are required to maintain productivity. When forage species are afforded adequate recovery time between grazing intervals, they develop deeper root systems and greater leaf area. Conversely, when plants are not allowed to adequately recover, root development will be restricted leading to lower forage and biomass production. Additionally, maintenance of grass stands requires implementing pest management practices to control unwanted weedy and woody species.

Community 5.4
Early Woody Succession

This community is characterized by a diverse composition of grasses and forbs with an increasing presence of woody species (both native and non-native) that are immature and of low stature. Woody species grow quickly on this site and can be difficult and expensive to control. One potentially problematic species may be honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos). Putnam (1951) reported honeylocust as being common on old pastures, and the species can be difficult to remove once established. Management to transition this phase to other forage communities of this state is still possible without excessive inputs and effort, particularly if stem diameters remain below 2 inches and are widely scattered (e.g., a density of less than 100 stems per acre). However, if diameters become greater than 3 inches and densities exceed 300 stems per acre, far more investment, effort, and inputs will be required. If brush management measures are not undertaken, the plant community will transition to the Ruderal/Opportunistic Regrowth (Community Phase 6.1) of State 6.

Of note, this community phase is often very beneficial habitat for some wildlife species, especially a specific guild of resident and Neotropical migratory bird species that depend on old field to young tree stand habitats.

Dominant plant species

honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), tree

Pathway 5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2

Seeding and/or management for desired species composition.

Pathway 5.1B
Community 5.1 to 5.3

Species management without overseeding.

Pathway 5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.1

Seeding, fertilizing, management/removal of undesirable species.

Pathway 5.2B
Community 5.2 to 5.3

Species management without overseeding

Pathway 5.3A
Community 5.3 to 5.1

Seeding, fertilizing, management/removal of undesirable species.

Pathway 5.3B
Community 5.3 to 5.2

Seeding and/or management for desired species composition.

Pathway 5.3C
Community 5.3 to 5.4

Lack of disturbance; no (infrequent) mowing, herbivory, or brush management; natural succession of woody species.

Pathway 5.4A
Community 5.4 to 5.3

Brush management/removal of unwanted species.

State 6
Forest Recovery

This state is representative of forest recovery in areas that were once under former intensive land use such as long-term row crop cultivation. Characteristics that distinguish this state from other forest states on this site include a suite of soil-site properties that reportedly affect tree growth such as higher soil bulk density due to compaction, presence of a plow pan, lower organic matter content, and reduced fertility (Baker and Broadfoot, 1979; Groninger et al., 1999). Two community phases are provisionally recognized for this state. Community Phase 6.1 represents natural colonization of tree and shrub species without management. Community Phase 6.2 is representative of intentional forest establishment by artificial regeneration or planting.

For Community Phase 6.2, determining the objectives and goals of the future stand is imperative to increase the probability of successful establishment and production of the afforested area. These decisions will ultimately determine the species to be established, preparation requirements, planting density, and post-planting operations (e.g., competitor control, future improvement cuttings and thinnings, regeneration methods, and overall stand health). Since each area targeted for afforestation may have unique or different land use histories, having a clear understanding of the soil-site conditions are essential. Some areas may necessitate a series of soil improvement actions prior to planting. These actions may include subsoiling or deep plowing to breakup plow pans and fertilizing the targeted area. An additional option is to allow the area to undergo fallowing for a predetermined period (Community Phase 6.1) to potentially increase soil organic matter content, enhance soil aggregate stability, increase soil biological activity, and improve water holding capacity and infiltration rates. Controlling competing vegetation (chemical and mechanical treatment) will most likely be critical. Post-planting operations and maintenance of the stand can enhance survival, future development, and achieve goals and objectives (see Gardiner et al., 2002).

Finding the appropriate approach for a given environment necessitates close consultation with trained, experienced, and knowledgeable forestry professionals. If there is a desire to proceed with this state, it is strongly urged and advised that professional guidance be obtained and a well-designed afforestation and silvicultural plan developed in advance of any work conducted. For an exceptional review and summarization of the afforestation literature, techniques, and practices within the Southern Mississippi River Alluvium, interested parties are directed to Gardiner et al. (2002).

Community 6.1
Ruderal/Opportunistic Regrowth

This community phase is representative of former working lands (e.g., cropland and possibly high concentration areas of former pastureland) that have fallowed and subsequently undergone natural colonization by vegetation. A profusion of growth will likely initiate within five to ten years of becoming idle – one that typically includes grasses, forbs, woody seedlings and shrubs, and an increasing presence and covering of vines. Initial colonization may be dominant in annuals followed by a shift to perennial vegetation. Shrubs and tree seedlings may appear very early following abandonment, however the rate of colonization and period to stand establishment likely depends on the proximity of established mature stands (Battaglia et al., 1995; Battaglia et al., 2002). If established stands consisting of light-seeded species adjoin fallow fields, colonizing tree species will likely be comprised of those taxa (e.g., green ash, elm, sycamore, and cottonwood) (Allen, 1990; Stanturf et al., 2001). Some areas may be far removed from established forest stands. Under this scenario, establishment of woody species (especially overstory tree species) may be very slow, and years may be required before stand establishment is reached (Battaglia et al., 1995; Allen, 1997). In fact, natural colonization by some species may be delayed indefinitely with some stands or areas being understocked (Allen, 1997; Battaglia et al., 2002; Groninger, 2005). Heavy-seeded species like oaks and hickory may not have an opportunity to colonize available areas due to distance and lack of a dependable dispersing agent (e.g., wildlife and water). For those areas close to a viable seed source, oaks may be a component of the developing stand, although in the early stages of stand development oaks are likely to be a minor component (Meadows, 1993). Non-native invasive species may become part of the developing stand given the proliferation of exotic plant species over the past century.

It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to predict the future composition and structure of an abandoned field on this site. Many different environmental factors will influence initial colonization and development trajectories. The following projections are simply based on native plant species reported to occur on the soils of this site. As the young stand matures and eventually enters the stem exclusion stage (crown or canopy closure), composition may include American elm, green ash, eastern cottonwood, American sycamore, sweetgum, and American hornbeam. Oaks that may occur in the young stand include cherrybark, swamp chestnut, water, willow, and possibly Nuttall but these will likely be rare or uncommon components, if present at all. Problematic non-native species that may occur include Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), Chinese tallow (Triadica sebifera), and possibly Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana). Vines common in the young, developing stand may include greenbrier (Smilax spp.), eastern poison ivy, and trumpet creeper. As the stand matures decades into the future and the overstory stratifies (i.e., the understory reinitiation stage), shade tolerant species may rise to prominence in the stand.

Dominant plant species

winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
American elm (Ulmus americana), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree

Community 6.2
Afforestation

This community phase is representative of areas planted in tree species that are suited for and favored in management on this ecological site. Preparation of this phase may be initiated immediately following a former landuse activity (e.g., State 3) or it may be started following a fallow period (Community Phase 6.1). If afforestation is initiated immediately following years of conventional tillage without soil-site preparation and improvement efforts, potential productivity of the targeted area could be less than optimal if soil compaction, plow pan presence, degraded fertility, and/or depleted organic matter content are existing factors (Baker and Broadfoot, 1979; Groninger et al., 1999; Gardiner et al., 2002).

Over the years, various afforestation innovations have increased the likelihood of success in addition to soil-site amelioration such as planting large, high-quality seedlings with well-developed root systems in an appropriate cover crop (Dey et al., 2010); interplanting seedlings within a fast-growing pioneer species nurse crop (e.g., cottonwood) (Gardiner et al., 2001); and planting companionable species combinations for mixed species stands (Lockhart et al., 2008). The cover crop and nurse crop approaches reportedly help to control rapid overtopping and crowding by competing vegetation and wildlife herbivory (Dey et al., 2010). Finding the appropriate strategy for a given location requires matching the species to the local hydrologic and soil-site environment; determining short- and long-term objectives and goals; and implementing the appropriate management actions at the required intervals.

Several species that frequently occur and favored in management (see State 1) are likely appropriate for planting on this ecological site. However, Broadfoot (1976) listed a much narrower group of hardwoods suitable for planting on one of the soils of this site, Askew soils, and they are sweetgum, green ash, eastern cottonwood, Nuttall oak, Shumard’s oak, and American sycamore. Although not included in Broadfoot’s list of trees to plant, extremely important components such as cherrybark oak and water oak are included as naturally occurring species on these higher and drier “ridge soils” and may warrant consideration (Putnam, 1951; Eyre, 1980; MMNS, 2015).

Dominant plant species

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
Nuttall oak (Quercus texana), tree
Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), tree
American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda), tree
water oak (Quercus nigra), tree

Pathway 6.1A
Community 6.1 to 6.2

Remove undesirable competitors; final soil preparation; establish site-appropriate species (favored in management).

State 7
Conservation (Herbaceous)

This state is representative of the range of conservation actions that may be implemented and established on this ecological site. Apart from planting trees and managing for forest, one may elect to establish native herbaceous species and manage for predominantly a native grassland; a complex mixture of native grasses and forbs; or a pollinator planting whereby native forbs dominate the mix. In each of these options, it is strongly advised (possibly a programmatic requirement) that the species comprising the planting or seed mix consist of spring, summer, and fall flowering species. Depending on goals and objectives, various conservation programs and practices may be available. For additional information and assistance, please contact or visit the local NRCS Field Office.

Community 7.1
Pollinator Planting/Native Grasses

This community phase represents the establishment of native forbs or wildflowers for pollinator habitat or native grasses. The seed mix for planting may be quite varied depending on objectives and goals. Ideally, the mix includes a wide range of species that flower at various times of the growing season (spring, summer, and fall). Plant species in some pollinator mixes may include but are not limited to beebalm (Monarda spp.), milkweeds (Asclepias spp.), beardtongue (Penstemon spp.), vervain (Verbena spp.), various legumes such as native lespedeza (Lespedeza spp.), Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoensis), partridge pea (Chamaecrista fasciculata), and a broad assortment of composites such as asters (Symphyotrichum spp.), tickseed (Coreopsis spp.), blazing star (Liatris spp.), coneflower (Rudbeckia spp.), sunflower (Helianthus spp.) among many others. If goals and objectives are to establish native grasses within a forb mix or in a grass-dominant stand, species suitable for planting may include big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans).

Key to the establishment of this phase is initial preparation, seeding rate, planting period, follow-up treatment, and maintenance of the planting. The selection of species to establish on any given area may ultimately depend on size and conditions of the location where the planting will occur, landowner/manager goals and objectives, and the advice and knowledge of the conservation practitioner.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Stand composition is heavily altered and managed to favor select species for production (Community Phase 2.1). This transitional pathway also includes heavy timber cutting and/or repeated partial harvests (high-grading) leading to Community Phase 2.2.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Actions include mechanical removal of vegetation and stumps; herbicide treatment of residual plants; and preparation for cultivation.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

Actions include mechanical removal of vegetation and stumps; herbicide treatment of residual plants; seedbed preparation; and establishment of desired forage.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

This transition represents a return to perceived reference conditions and involves the re-establishment of missing species; the control/removal of exotic species (herbicide and mechanical); stand improvement practices that favors a return of more shade intolerant components.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 3

Actions include mechanical removal of vegetation and stumps; herbicide treatment of residual plants; and preparation for cultivation.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

Actions include mechanical removal of vegetation and stumps; herbicide treatment of residual plants; seedbed preparation; and establishment of desired forage.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

Precision land leveling

Transition T3B
State 3 to 5

Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); seedbed preparation; establishment of desired forage; manage for grazing

Transition T3C
State 3 to 6

Natural succession (Community 6.1) or prepare area (e.g., plow pan breakup, fertilizing, etc.) and plant tree species appropriate for site (Afforestation - Community 6.2)

Transition T3D
State 3 to 7

Establish select native species suitable for site; prepare for planting (herbicide and/or mechanical)

Transition T5A
State 5 to 3

Actions include mechanical removal of vegetation; herbicide treatment of residual plants; and preparation for cultivation.

Transition T5B
State 5 to 6

Natural succession (Community 6.1) or prepare area (e.g., plow pan breakup, fertilizing, etc.) for planting tree species appropriate for site (Afforestation - Community 6.2)

Transition T5C
State 5 to 7

Establish select native species suitable for site and prepare area for planting (herbicide and/or mechanical).

Transition T6A
State 6 to 3

Cropland establishment: vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical) and preparation for cultivation.

Transition T6B
State 6 to 5

Vegetation/stump removal (mechanical/chemical); seedbed preparation; establishment of desired forage; manage for grazing

Transition T7A
State 7 to 3

Cropland establishment: vegetation removal (mechanical/chemical) and preparation for cultivation.

Transition T7B
State 7 to 5

Establish desired forage species and manage for grazing.

Transition T7C
State 7 to 6

Natural succession (Community 6.1) or prepare area (e.g., plow pan breakup, fertilizing, etc.) for planting tree species appropriate for site (Afforestation - Community 6.2).

Additional community tables

Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 7. Community 2.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 8. Community 2.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 9. Community 3.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 10. Community 3.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 11. Community 3.3 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 12. Community 4.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 13. Community 5.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 14. Community 5.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 15. Community 5.3 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 16. Community 5.4 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 17. Community 6.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 18. Community 6.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Table 19. Community 7.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production ()	Foliar cover (%)

Supporting information

Inventory data references

The information provided on the states and community phases in this provisional description report were generated from literature reviews, conversations with technical specialists, and limited personal observations and experience on this soil-site environment. Intensive vegetation inventories were not conducted during the development of this provisional report. Those tasks will occur during future phases of ecological site development.

Other references

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Aslan, A. and W.J. Autin. 1999. Evolution of the Holocene Mississippi River floodplain, Ferriday, Louisiana: Insights on the origin of fine-grained floodplains. Journal of Sedimentary Research 69: 800-815.

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Baker, J.B. and W.M. Broadfoot. 1979. A practical field method of site evaluation for commercially important southern hardwoods. General Technical Report SO-26. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 51 p.

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Battaglia, L.L., P.R. Minchin, and D.W. Pritchett. 2002. Sixteen years of old-field succession and reestablishment of a bottomland hardwood forest in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Wetlands 22(1): 1-17.

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Dey, D.C., E.S. Gardiner, J.M. Kabrick, J.A. Stanturf, and D.F. Jacobs. 2010. Innovations in afforestation of agricultural bottomlands to restore native forests in the eastern USA. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 25(S8): 31-42.

Elliott, D.O. 1932. The Improvement of the Lower Mississippi River for Flood Control and Navigation. Volume 1. U.S. Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.

Eyre, F.H. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.

Flinn, K.M. and M. Vellend. 2005. Recovery of forest plant communities in post-agricultural landscapes. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3(5): 243-250.

Gardiner, E.S. personal communication. Research Forester, USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Stoneville, MS.

Gardiner, E.S. and J.M. Oliver. 2005. Restoration of bottomland hardwood forests in Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley, U.S.A. p. 235-251. In: J.A. Stanturf and P. Madsen (Editors). Restoration of Boreal and Temperate Forests. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Gardiner, E.S., D.R. Russell, M. Oliver, and L.C. Dorris, Jr. 2002. Bottomland hardwood afforestation: state of the art. p. 75-86. In: M.M. Holland, M.L. Warren, and J.A. Stanturf (Editors). Proceedings of a conference on sustainability of wetlands and water resources: how well can riverine wetlands continue to support society into the 21st century? General Technical Report SRS-50. USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville, NC.

Gardiner, E.S., C.J. Schweitzer, and J.A. Stanturf. 2001. Photosynthesis of Nuttall oak (Quercus nuttallii Palm.) seedlings interplanted beneath an eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.) nurse crop. Forest Ecology and Management 149: 283-294.

Green, Jonathan D., W.W. Witt, and J.R. Martin. 2006. Weed management in grass pastures, hayfields, and other farmstead sites. University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service, Publication AGR-172.

Groninger, J.W. 2005. Increasing the impact of bottomland hardwood afforestation. Journal of Forestry 103(4): 184-188.

Groninger, J.W., M.W. Aust, M. Miwa, and J.A. Stanturf. 1999. Tree species-soil relationships on marginal soybean lands in the Mississippi Delta. p. 205-209. In: J.D. Haywood (Editor). Proceedings of the Tenth Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference, Shreveport, LA. General Technical Report SRS-30. USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville, NC. 632 p.

Hodges, J.D. 1995. The southern bottomland hardwood region and brown loam bluffs subregion. p. 227-269. In: J.W. Barrett (Editor). Regional Silviculture of the United States. Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY.

Hodges, J.D. 1997. Development and ecology of bottomland hardwood sites. Forest Ecology and Management 90: 117-125.

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Contributors

Barry Hart
Rachel Stout Evans

Approval

Charles Stemmans, 6/10/2025

Acknowledgments

We are sincerely grateful to the MLRA 131A Technical Team for their assistance and input in the development of this report. Special recognition is owed to Tom Foti (Ecologist, Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Retired) and Henry Langston (Wetland Ecologist, Arkansas Department of Transportation, Retired) for their time, personal travel expenses, and willingness to share their vast knowledge of the region. Their assistance with field reconnaissance, identifying sites and locations for investigating, and verifying ecological factors across multiple Mississippi River basins has led to a deeper understanding of the ecological sites and their associated states and community phases in the Southern Mississippi River Alluvium.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	07/17/2026
Approved by
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Presence of water flow patterns:
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:

Sub-dominant:

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Perennial plant reproductive capability:

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Natural ResourcesConservation Service

Ecological site F131AY306MS

Yazoo - Old Loamy Natural Levee and Meander Scroll Ridge Forest

Last updated: 6/10/2025 Accessed: 07/17/2026

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General information

MLRA notes

LRU notes

Classification relationships

Ecological site concept

Associated sites

Similar sites

Figure 1. Distribution of F131AY306MS.

Table 2. Dominant plant species

Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Last updated: 6/10/2025
Accessed: 07/17/2026