State 1
Moderately Deep Interbedded Limestone-Shale Oak-Hickory Forest

These ecological sites generally occupied the middle to upper sideslopes and lower ridges of hills within the Inner and Outer Bluegrass physiographic regions of Kentucky. The aspect on these sites is variable as soil depth and rock content appeared to have more influence on plant growth and species density than aspect. Slopes on sites visited ranged from 15% to over 45%. Soil depth varied from 21 to 40 inches and parent material of the soils were residuum from interbedded calcareous shale, siltstone, and limestone (Eden soils) or limestone residuum interbedded with thin layers of shale (Faywood soils). Sites frequently had exposed surface rock and rock content in the soil profile.

Tree canopies were generally medium in height and somewhat closed (70 to 90% shade levels) with dominant trees consisting of oak and hickory species in phase 1.1, oak and sugar maple in phase 1.3, and eastern red cedar in phase 1.2. Understory herbaceous layers were generally dense and diverse with minor variations dependent upon soil depth, rock content, soil type, and micro-topography.

Community 1.1
Moderately Deep Limestone-Shale Oak-Hickory Backslope

Figure 7. Eden_Faywood_backslope_Outerbluegrass_KY

Figure 8. Eden_Faywood_pawpaw_grove_Outerbluegrass_KY

Figure 9. Eden_FaywoodUnderstory_GrantCo_KY

Figure 10. Eden_Faywood_PendletonCo_KY

This community phase is characterized by a a mix of oak and hickory species including white oak, northern red oak, chinkapin oak, Shumard oak, black oak, shagbark hickory, mockernut hickory, and pignut hickory. Sugar maple was common on all sites. Other tree species found on these ecological sites may included bitternut hickory, eastern redbud, hackberry, white ash, blue ash, and sassafras.

Shrub and herbaceous layers varied somewhat with soil depth, topography, drainage patterns and aspect. For example, spicebush was more prevalent on the north and east aspects and on concave hillsides where soil moisture levels were higher. In more mesic microclimate areas, pawpaw trees were common. Coralberry was prevalent on Eden soils versus Faywood soils and on shallow, drier sites. Spicebush was denser on Faywood soils and on mesic sites.

Forest overstory.Sites showed variations in overstory composition based on soil depth ranging from 21-40 inches, micro-topography, and available seed sources.<br /> <br /> Shallower sites (monitored 6 sites 21-28" depth) had more chinkapin oak and Shumard oak than deeper sites, but still exhibited the variety of overstory trees that typify this community phase. Species present included white oak, black oak, pignut hickory, shagbark hickory. Also present, but not dominate, where American elm, white ash, and sugar maple. Eastern redbud, hophornbeam, sassafras, hackberry, black walnut, black locust, and bitternut hickory were also present in monitored plots. Protected sites had the addition of northern red oaks and often a grove of pawpaw trees.

Forest understory. Understory composition of these sites ranged from shrub and herbaceous to just herbaceaous. Common shrub species included coralberry, spicebush, blackhaw, and rarely, arrow-wood. Herbaceous plants were plentiful and varied with a wide variety of spring wildflowers and summer natives.

Community 1.2
Moderately-Deep Interbedded Limestone-Shale Cedar Woodland

Figure 11. ERC_successional_grove_FaywoodSoils

This successional community phase is dominated by eastern red cedar trees. Hardwood species such as white oak, chinkapin oak, Shumard oak, northern red oak, shagbark hickory, white ash, blue ash, sugar maple, and elms are in the understory and growing slowly due to the shaded environment. Within two to three decades, natural succession will result in the hardwoods starting to overtop the cedars. This process can be accelerated through forest stand management activities. This community will transition to phase 1.1 or phase 1.2 depending upon the management, available seed sources, and the fire regime of the site.

Forest overstory.Dense eastern red cedar composes the canopy of this community. A small percentage of the midstory or overstory canopy may be hardwood species. If nearby seed sources are available, oak and hickory species are likely to include white oak, chinkapin oak, Shumard oak, black oak, and northern red oak. Hickory species found on some sites included shagbark, bitternut, mockernut and black walnut. Trees with wind-blow seed distribution were common on all sites and included white ash, sugar maple, and elm species. Some sites contained blue ash and hackberry.

Forest understory. Eastern redbud is the most common midstory hardwood tree in these communities. Limited hardwood seedling and sapplings were found in the understory on monitored sites and included sugar maple, white ash, American elm, slippery elm, red oak (Shumard or northern red), chinkapin oak, hackberry, eastern redbud, Ohio buckeye, hackberry, and black locust. Two sites in the Inner Bluegrass also included blue ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx.).

Community 1.3
Moderately Deep Interbedded Limestone/Shale Maple Oak Forest

Figure 12. maple_midstory_EdenSoils_KincaidLakeSP

Figure 13. understory_maple_regeneration_EdenSoil_PendletonCo

This community phase still has a predominant oak-hickory overstory component; however, this phase is characterized by the dominance of sugar maple in the understory and midstory levels. These sites are typically found on protected areas or on hillsides with deeper soils (30-40 inches). Additional soils depth, north or eastern aspects, and convex micro-topography offer plants additional available water. The dense shading of the understory reduces the reproduction of oaks and hickories on these sites. High basal areas were typical due to large numbers of small DBH maples found in plots.

Forest overstory.Phase 1.2 sites had forest overstories of oak, hickory and sugar maple. Oak and hickory still made up a major component of the upper overstory; however, the understory, midstory and lower portion of the overstory all had a noticeably high percentage of sugar maple compared to phase 1.1.

Forest understory. This phase is noticeably different from 1.1 due to the lack of oak/hickory regeneration, the higher percentage of canopy cover shading, and the higher density of the leaf litter layer. Rather than the drier, fluffier oak/hickory leaf litter, the sugar maple sites had a thick, matted layer of maple leaves. These sites also had less of an understory: fewer forbs/herb, a lighter shrub layer, and a much higher percentage of young maple trees.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Moderately Deep Limestone-Shale Oak-Hickory Backslope

Moderately-Deep Interbedded Limestone-Shale Cedar Woodland

Large-scale disturbance, specifically mature hardwood tree removal or destruction, will cause phase 1.1 to transition back to phase 1.2. Natural or man-made events such as clear cutting, wind, ice, or catastrophic fires will cause a community shift in this direction. Removal of the oak-hickory forest overstory will allow eastern red cedar trees to thrive and dominate the site. Phase 1.2 will then transition to either 1.1 or 1.3 depending on seed sources, fire regime, and timber stand management activities.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Moderately Deep Limestone-Shale Oak-Hickory Backslope

Moderately Deep Interbedded Limestone/Shale Maple Oak Forest

With removal of overstory oak and hickory species (for example, a selective harvest), phase 1.1 will transition to phase 1.3. Forest stand maangement is often warranted under these conditions to control sugar maple density and encourage regeneration of oak and hickory species. This pathway also reflects a growing ecological concern nationwide that oak-hickory forests are transitioning to maple-dominated woodlands due to a change in the natural fire regime (i.e. lack of wildfires). Ecological communities that were previously oak-hickory forests are converting to maple woodlands. Ten sites visited for this ecological site description had understory and midstory canopies consisting of 60 to 85 percent sugar maple. The dense shading from a maple dominant overstory retards oak and hickory reproduction and reduces the diversity of the herbaceous layer. As a shade-tolerant species, sugar maple will continue to thrive on these sites. Without management inputs or wildfires, this community will likely not transition naturally to an oak-hickory forest.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Moderately-Deep Interbedded Limestone-Shale Cedar Woodland

Moderately Deep Limestone-Shale Oak-Hickory Backslope

Phase 1.2, the eastern red cedar grove, will transition to the reference community given adequate seed sources and a natural fire regime. In the absense of oak and hickory seed sources or a natural fire regime, timber stand improvement activites may be needed. Activities may include planting oak and hickory trees, reducing maple populations, and controling bush honeysuckle. Maple control would allow hardwoods the additional light needed to speed growth and increase forest production rates. These ecological sites contain a variety of hardwood species in the understory and midstory level. White oak, northern red oak, black oak, chinkapin oak, Shumard oak, shagbark hickory, mockernut hickory, pignut hickory, bitternut hickory, white ash, blue ash, eastern redbud, American elm, slippery elm, and black walnut are some of the more frequent tree species.

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Moderately-Deep Interbedded Limestone-Shale Cedar Woodland

Moderately Deep Interbedded Limestone/Shale Maple Oak Forest

This pathway was seen on multiple mesic sites where sugar maple was the dominant midstory and understory tree species. On multiple sites visited, sugar maple regeneration was dense but oak-hickory seedlings were scarce. Long-term pastures that have transitioned to eastern red cedar groves often do not have an adequate seed source to successfully reach the oak-hickory reference phase without management inputs (i.e. plantings). A highly shade-tolerant species, sugar maple will likely become the dominate hardwood species on such sites in the absense of managment intervention.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Moderately Deep Interbedded Limestone/Shale Maple Oak Forest

Moderately Deep Limestone-Shale Oak-Hickory Backslope

This community pathway involves forest stand improvement activities to reduce maple growth in the midstory and understory. The reduction in maples will allow more light to young oak and hickory seedlings and saplings. Planting of oaks and hickories my be required depending on available seed sources, management goals, and site quality. Landowners should also be on the lookout for the invasive bush honeysuckle and take active control measures if required. Potential conservation practices include forest stand improvement, forest management plan applied, brush management, prescribed burning, and/or upland wildlife habitat management.

Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Moderately Deep Interbedded Limestone/Shale Maple Oak Forest

Moderately-Deep Interbedded Limestone-Shale Cedar Woodland

emoval of hardwood trees (harvesting, ice damage, wind storms, catastrophic fires) can shift a maple-oak community toward an eastern red cedar woodland. These moderately deep sites over limestone/shale parent material are excellent habitat for eastern red cedar succesional communities. Potential conservation practices include access control, fence, brush management, forest stand improvement, tree/shrub establishment, and/or upland wildlife habitat management.

State 2
Grasslands

The pasture state for these ecological sites is commonly one of three phases: managed pasture, minimally managed pasture, or a warm-season grass habitat. The managed and minimally managed pasture sites were predominately cool-season, introduced grass species such as tall fescue, orchard grass, brome grass, and Kentucky bluegrass.

Community 2.1
Managed Pastureland

Figure 14. Managed_Pasture_F121XY002KY

This community phase consists of managed pastureland and was found mostly on lower slope sites. The majority of these sites were planted with tall fescue and actively managed for grazing or hay production. Forb and herb species, noxious weeds, vines, and trees were kept to a minimum through herbicide treatments and mowing.

This phase was found on limited sites. Since most of the sites included in this project are in excess of 15 percent slope, this phase occurred on lower slope sites.

Forest overstory.There was no forest overstory composition for this community phase.

Forest understory. There is no forest understory composition for this community phase.

Community 2.2
Minimally Managed Pastureland

Figure 15. unmanaged_pasture_F121XY002KY

This phase is typified by an array of introduced grasses such as tall fescue, orchard grass, timothy, Johnson grass, orchard grass, Kentucky bluegrass, etc. Due to the reduction in management inputs (less weed treatment, less mowing, unmanaged grazing, etc.) the quality and quanity of forage was reduced compared to phase 2.1. The amount and diversity of native and introduced forbs, herbs, and vines were greater than phase 2.1. On sites with unmanaged grazing, especially those with steeper slopes, moderate to severe soil erosion was often visible.

Forest overstory.There is no Forest Overstory composition in this community phase.

Forest understory. There is no Forest Overstory composition in this community phase.

Community 2.3
Native Grass-Pollinator pasture

Figure 16. native_grass_pollinator_herbs_forbs_F121XY002KY

This community contains a majority of native plants but is not truly "natural" in that management inputs are required to create and maintain this phase. The community consists mainly of warm-season grasses, forbs, and herbs - the percentages of each and species are dependent upon seeding and management. Maintenance of this community may include prescribed burning to control the growth of eastern red cedar and other pioneer species of trees and shrubs.

Six plots in the Bluegrass physiographic region of Kentucky were monitored and plants found are listed below. Not all species were found on all plots as species distribution was determined mainly by what seed mix was used.

Landowners interested in developing a native grass prairie often have the objective of benefiting wildlife and pollinators. Seed companies have developed specific mixes targeting this market, and NRCS conservation planners can assist in developing a plan specific to a landowners location and objectives.

Forest overstory.There is no forest overstory composition for this phase.

Forest understory. There is no forest understory composition for this phase.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Managed Pastureland

Minimally Managed Pastureland

This pathway will occur naturally with the reduction or lack of management inputs and is generally observed on hilly locations where pasture maintenance is more difficult. With a lack of grazing, these sites had a dense cover of cool-season grasses along with a variety of introduced and native forbs, herbs, and vines. Unmanaged grazing on these sites generally resulted in an increase in undesirable species including thistles, greenbrier, ironweed, and multiflora rose. Signs of soil erosion were often present on these sites.

Pathway 2.1B
Community 2.1 to 2.3

Managed Pastureland

Native Grass-Pollinator pasture

Transitioning a predominately fescue field to a native grass pasture requires management inputs including herbicides, seeding, and weed control management. These areas of natural grasses are utilized as wildlife habitat, hay production, summer pastures, pollinator habitat, and/or conservation areas for native plants. Monitored sites contained a diversity of grasses, herbs, and forbs, usually dependent upon inital plantings selected by landowners and the levels of ongoing management.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Minimally Managed Pastureland

Managed Pastureland

With additional management inputs, this phase can be transitioned to a high-quality pasture or hayland. Steep slopes and/or high rock content preclude mechanized management, so the better pasture sites were always found on the lower slopes.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3

Minimally Managed Pastureland

Native Grass-Pollinator pasture

On sites with lower slopes and less rock content, it would be feasible to plant and maintain a native grass pasture. Two native grass prairies were visited as part of this project. The owners had installed them with NRCS assistance for wildlife benefits and pollinator conservation. Species planted would vary depending on the owners management goals. The species listed below are not all-inclusive but represent the species found in the field during site visits.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1

Native Grass-Pollinator pasture

Managed Pastureland

This community pathway was not observed in the field. However, it is feasible to convert a warm-season grass pasture to a managed tall fescue pasture if so desired. Inputs would include herbicide, seed, and labor. The taller native grass species, such as big blue stem and indian grass, would likely require multiple herbicide treatment for a complete die down. Tall fescue is a bunch grass with deep roots, short rhizomes, and is highly adaptable to different soils types and site conditions, so development of this phase would not be difficult on most sites. Production levels will be determined by available moisture and management.

State 3
Transitional Field

This state is characterized by encroaching eastern red cedar trees into a pastureland environment. This natural transition occurs once pasture management inputs are reduced. Monitored sites were predominately tall fescue pastures that were in the process of naturally reverting to a eastern red cedar grove. The moderately-deep soils on these sites had minimal surface rock and with 5 to 20 percent rock fragments in the subsurface layers. Hardwood seedlings present could include white oak, chinkapin oak, red oak, black oak, shagbark hickory, mockernut hickory, and/or black walnut if an adequate seed sources were available. Seedlings of white ash, red maple, sugar maple, hackberry, black locust, honey locust, American elm, osage orange and slippery elm could also be found on these sites.

Community 3.1
Transitional Field

Figure 17. Transitional_field_F121XY002KY_2

Figure 18. Transitional_field_F121XY002KY

This phase is best described as an old field habitat with a mixture of native and introduced grasses, a variety of native herbs and forbs, a selection of non-native weedy plants such as thistles, a robust community of young eastern red cedar trees, and a few hardwood seedlings. The moderately-deep limestone soil provides adequate available moisture for a wide variety of plant species.

These sites were often found on private property of landowners interested in wildlife habitat or on Kentucky wildlife management areas. The variety of plants found on these sites provides desired habitat for non-game and game species. To reduce the density of the eastern red cedar trees, many landowners chose to actively managing these properties by thinning or removal of cedar trees. This management activity halts or slows the natural transition of this community to phase 1.3.

On sites that were still being grazing, the eastern red cedars were encroaching but there were very few native forbs and herbs. These sites generally had few hardwood seedlings, more weedy species, and lower pasture production levels. Common species on these sites included honey or black locust, multiflora rose, Canadian thistle, bull thistle, ironweed, greenbriers, and blackberries.

Forest overstory.The overstory composition on these sites consisted mainly of eastern red cedar. Most sites also had assorted young hardwoods (especially those species with wind-blown seeds)including sugar maple, hackberry, white ash, American elm, and eastern redbud. Other species on monitored sites included black walnut, sassafras, white oak, chinkapin oak, Shumard oak, osage orange, and winged elm.

Forest understory. The understory composition of this phase was a mix of introduced grasses and many different species of native and introduced forbs, herbs, and vines. Grass composition was dependent upon previous seeding and adjacent fields

State 4
Honeysuckle Invaded State

This State is characterized by the dominance of bush honeysuckle, an aggressive non-native shurb. Bush honeysuckle is a common name used for many differenct species including Lonicera maackii, L. tatarica, L. morrowii, L. fragrantissima, etc. Plot monitoring for this project found Amur honeysuckle, Lonicera maackii, was the most common species on these sites. This plan was introduced from Asia in the 1700 and 1800s for ornamental purposes and is now an ecological epidemic in central Kentucky and surrounding states. L. maackii is shade tolerate plant that forms dense thickets in forests, roadsides, and pastures. Colonizing by abundant seed production and root sprouting, this plant will dominate the midstory of forest communities. The dense shade and competition from these plants destroys the native herbaceous layer and halts normal oak-hickory reproduction.

Community 4.1
Honeysuckle-Hardwood Woodland

Figure 19. HoneysuckleWoodland

This community phase is typified by dense Lonicera maackii in the understory and midstory, limited to no hardwood reproduction, a sparse and undiverse herbaceous layer. Often the overstory is still oak-hickory trees which pre-date the invasion of the honeysuckle. Plots on these sites show that the understory consists of 70-100% honeysuckle. Forest floor shading is 80-100% due to the dense grown pattern of this plant. Six out of ten monitored plots had no hardwood tree seedlings. The other four plots had one white oak and 6 sugar maple seedlings total. Restoration of this community to an oak-hickory woodland requires extensive and long-term inputs to remove the honeysuckle, plant desirable tree species, and maintain a multi-year control program.

Forest overstory.Forest overstory composition of these sites varied depending on age of the community when invaded by the bush honeysuckle. Overstory trees on monitored sites included sugar maple, white oak, chinkapin oak, hackberry, white ash, red oak, black oak, shagbark hickory, black locust, honey locust, and in on plot- blue ash. Older oak-hickory forests that had been invaded by honeysuckle still had an intact overstory; however, normal oak-hickory reproduction was not present due to the dense shading of the honeysuckle. Younger communities had almost no oak-hickory overstory component and were generally composed of sugar maple, hackberry, white ash, and other more shade tolerant tree species.

Forest understory. The understory composition of these sites were hugely different from reference sites. Juvenile bush honeysuckle plants were 70-95% of the recorded plants in monitored plots. Ground cover shade from the shrub layer was sometimes as high as 100%. Overall, these areas were unique in that the herbaceous layer was sparse and lacked species diversity. Most noticeable in monitored plots was the absence of oak-hickory seedling and/or saplings and the usual native forbs found on reference sites. Limited sugar maple, hackberry, and white ash seedlings were recorded on these sites; however the majority of plant reproduction was that of bush honeysuckle.

Transition T1B, T1C
State 1 to 4

These transitions represent the ecological impacts of a woodland phase being invaded by bush honeysuckle.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 1

Transition 3A will occur via natural succession for these ecological sites. The transitional field community will progressively develop into an eastern red cedar woodland (phase 1.2 in the state and transition model).

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

The transitional field community, with appropriate management inputs, can be moved back to any of the pasture phases. This transition is labeled as a restoration pathway only because the transitional field phase (State 3) originally transitioned from pastureland (State 2).

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

Restoration of this State is a multi-year undertaking that requires extensive inputs and continual brush/invasive plant removal and treatment. Several sources indicate bush honeysuckle seeds are dispersed primarily by frugivorous birds and numerous studies have shown that a wide variety of bird species consume and spread Amur honeysuckle fruit. Seeds are viable for many years and seed production is robust. Research has shown that bush honeysuckle plants can produce thousands of seeds annually. Herbicides are necessary to reduce sprouting after brush cutting and such treatment requires a multi-year effort. Most of the sites monitored for this project did not have adequate seed sources to naturally return to a productive oak-hickory forest, so forest planting/seeding would likely be necessary for most sites.