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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 117X–Boston Mountains
This MLRA is about 6,850 square miles (17,775 square kilometers) and is in Arkansas (82 percent) and Oklahoma (18 percent). The Ozark National Forest makes up a significant portion of the MLRA.
This area is predominantly in the Boston Mountains Section of the Ozark Plateaus Province of the Interior Highlands. This MLRA marks the southern extent of the Ozarks, a deeply eroded plateau. Ridges of the MLRA are narrow and rolling, and valley sides are steep. Elevation ranges from 570 feet (170 meters) to 1,860 feet (560 meters). Some lower and higher areas are on valley floors and crests of ridges, respectively.
Level to slightly tilted shale, sandstone, and siltstone strata of geologic formations from the Pennsylvanian Subperiod underlie most of the MLRA. These formations include the Atoka Formation, the Bloyd Shale, and the Cane Hill and Prairie Grove Members of the Hale Formation. The Pitkin Limestone, Fayetteville Shale, and Batesville Sandstone Formations from the Mississippian Subperiod underlie parts of the northern edge of the MLRA. Alluvial deposits are in river valleys and consist of an unconsolidated mixture of clay, silt, sand, and gravel.
The MLRA has a thermic soil temperature regime and a udic soil moisture regime. The dominant soil orders are Ultisols and Inceptisols. The soils are loamy and have mixed or siliceous mineralogy. They are shallow to very deep and are well drained. Hapludults and Dystrudepts formed in residuum on hills, plateaus, and mountains. Paleudults, on terraces and hills, formed in old alluvium over residuum or colluvium over residuum.Ecological site concept
The Flood Plain Ecological Site is on flood plains alongside rivers or streams. The soils associated with this site are very deep and well drained. The soils formed in alluvium from sandstone and mixed parent materials and have a particle-size control section with greater than 18 percent clay. Slope ranges from 0 to 3 percent, and elevation ranges from 460 to 1,810 feet. This site is subject to occasional or frequent flooding for brief periods between January and July.
Associated sites
NX117X01Y029 Terrace
This site on stream terraces above the main flood plain and is subject to very rare flooding for brief periods of time.
Similar sites
NX117X01Y035 Seasonally Wet Loamy Upland
This site is on hillslopes of hills and has deep or very deep soils. There is a perched water table 24 to 36 inches below the soil surface in late winter and spring
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree (1) Quercus
(2) Platanus occidentalisShrub (1) Alnus
(2) HamamelisHerbaceous (1) Panicum virgatum
(2) Schizachyrium scopariumLegacy ID
F117XY030AR
Physiographic features
This ecological site is on flood plains alongside rivers or streams. Slope ranges from 0 and 3 percent, and elevation ranges from 460 to 1,810 feet (140 to 550 meters). The runoff class is very low or low.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) Alluvial plain > Flood plain
Runoff class Very low to low Flooding duration Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to brief (2 to 7 days) Flooding frequency Occasional to frequent Ponding frequency None Elevation 460 – 1810 ft Slope 0 – 3 % Aspect Aspect is not a significant factor Climatic features
Hot summers, cool winters, and mild spring and fall temperatures are typical for the ecological site. The mean annual precipitation is 51 inches. The average frost-free period is 165 days, and the average freeze-free period is 191 days. The highest precipitation occurs in May (6.2 inches), and the lowest occurs in January (3.0 inches). The warmest month of the year is August (91°F average high), and the coolest is January (25°F average low). Thunderstorms and heat waves are common and occur frequently during the summer months.
Occasionally, catastrophic storm events, such as tornados, ice storms, floods, and hailstorms, will occur. According to the Oklahoma Water Resource Board, drought occurs every 5 to 10 years (Oklahoma Water Resources Board, 2022). The EPA predicts droughts will become more severe throughout Arkansas due to longer periods without rain and an increase in very hot days (EPA, 2016).
For detailed information visit the Natural Resources Conservation Service National Water and Climate Center athttp://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/. The Fayetteville, Mountainburg, and Mountain View climate stations provided general climate data. Site-specific climate data is available through the National Weather Service.Table 3 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 160-170 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) 190-200 days Precipitation total (characteristic range) 50-50 in Frost-free period (actual range) 160-170 days Freeze-free period (actual range) 190-200 days Precipitation total (actual range) 50-50 in Frost-free period (average) 170 days Freeze-free period (average) 190 days Precipitation total (average) 50 in Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 1. Monthly precipitation range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 2. Monthly minimum temperature range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 3. Monthly maximum temperature range
BarLineFigure 4. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 5. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 6 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) FAYETTEVILLE DRAKE FLD [USW00093993], Fayetteville, AR
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(2) MOUNTAINBURG 2 NE [USC00035018], Mountainburg, AR
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(3) MTN VIEW [USC00035046], Mountain View, AR
">Influencing water features
This ecological site is subject to occasional or frequent flooding (6 to 50 times in 100 years to more than 50 times in 100 years) for brief periods (2 to 7 days).
Wetland description
Wetlands do not significantly influence this ecological site.
Soil features
The soils associated with this ecological site formed in alluvium from sandstone and shale. The soils are very deep, are well drained, and have a moderate or moderately rapid permeability class. The surface texture is commonly cobbly or gravelly fine sandy loam. The ecological site is subject to occasional or frequent flooding for brief periods.
The soil series associated with this site are the Ceda, Cleora, and Kenn Series.Table 4. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Alluvium – sandstone and shale
Surface texture (1) Cobbly, gravelly fine sandy loam
(2) Cobbly, gravelly loam
Drainage class Well drained Permeability class Moderate to moderately rapid Soil depth 60 – 80 in Surface fragment cover <=3" 5 – 26 % Surface fragment cover >3" 1 – 20 % Available water capacity
(Depth not specified)1.3 – 6.9 in Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(Depth not specified)5.6 – 6.9 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(Depth not specified)12 – 42 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(Depth not specified)3 – 17 % Ecological dynamics
The Reference State for this ecological site is a bottomland hardwood forest that is subject to periodic flooding throughout the year. The common tree species for this state are oak, sycamore, hickory, elm, and hackberry (Bedinger, 1979). As defined by NatureServe, this ecological site is part of the South-Central Interior Large Floodplain System and the Arkansas Valley Prairie and Woodland System (NatureServe, 2009). These ecosystems are known as hardwood flats in the HGM (hydrogeomorphic) classification system (Klimas et. al., 2009).
Flooding is a major ecosystem disturbance on this ecological site. The effects of flooding on the ecosystem vary and depend on flooding duration, the time of year, and ponding duration. Species diversity can decrease with an increase in flooding duration. Flooding events transport and distribute nutrients and seeds throughout the landscape. Flooding during the dormant season does not negatively affect species diversity or growth (Bedinger, 1979).
Fire somewhat influences this ecological site during dry years. High precipitation throughout the year affects fire behavior due to proximity to riparian areas. Historically, the average fire-return interval was likely between 3 and 25 years (Guyette and Spetich, 2003; Hallgren et al., 2012). Some of these wildfires occurred naturally through lightning strikes, but human activities probably caused most of these fires (DeSantis et al., 2010).
Climate-related events, such as floods, hailstorms, tornados, thunderstorms, and extreme precipitation, occur on these sites. Hailstorms can reduce canopy size, increase litter deposition, and increase tree bark removal. When paired with other disturbances, such as fire, the effects on tree species were much greater than in areas not affected by the hailstorm (Gower et al., 2015). Tornados can change plant community compositions in savanna ecosystems, favoring hardwoods and eliminating softwoods (Liu et al., 1997). Lightning storms greatly affect ecosystems. Lightning storms generally occur during summer months but can occur during any season. If a fire starts with a lightning strike, the effects on the ecosystem vary depending on the season (Hiers et al., 2000).
Grazing and farming are feasible for this ecological site. Changes to the ecological dynamics are proportional to the intensity of livestock grazing and can accelerate through overgrazing (Angerer et al., 2016). For example, desirable grasses and forbs repeatedly grazed by livestock become weak and can die, and less desirable species may replace them (Smith, 1940).
Timber harvesting alters the form and function of oak-pine ecosystems. Depending on the timber harvest method used (shelterwood, group selection, single-tree selection, seed tree, variable retention, or clearcutting), ecosystem dynamics can change very little or completely alter in form and function (Clark and Covey, 2012). Most of the currently forested sites have younger stands. Timber harvest practices change the species composition and quality of these stands and reduce the ecological value of the site. (Guldin and Fitzpatrick, 1991).
The state-and-transition model for the Flood Plain Ecological Site consists of three identified states: Reference, Timber Plantation, and Pasture. Because of sparse data availability, the model only explored basic principles and included only a small number of species. Further data collection from this ecological site would provide a greater understanding of ecological form and function and of resource consumption and distribution.State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
T1A - Planting of merchantable trees Targeted suppression of vegetation Prescribed fire Fertilization T1B - Tree removal Mechanical and chemical suppression of woody vegetation Tillage Introduction of annual or perennial forage species R2A - Natural regeneration and disturbance regimes T2A - Tree removal Mechanical and chemical suppression of woody vegetation Tillage Introduction of annual or perennial forage species R3A - Natural regeneration and disturbance regimes T3A - Planting of merchantable trees Targeted suppression of vegetation Prescribed fire Fertilization State 1 submodel, plant communities
1.1A - Lower precipitation and less flooding 1.2B - Higher precipitation and more flooding 1.2A - Lower precipitation and less flooding 1.3A - Higher precipitation and more flooding 1.3B - Higher precipitation and more flooding State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 1
ReferenceThe Reference State represents the natural range of variability without major human influences.
The main drivers for community pathways within this state are flooding events, climate effects (decadal scale), insect or disease presence or establishment, wildlife grazing or browsing, and wildfire frequency and intensity.
Flooding is the main feedback mechanism within this state. Because flooding limits the types of species that can grow and survive, water-tolerant trees dominate the ecological site.
Characteristics and indicators. The Reference State is a bottomland hardwood forest. Common tree species for this state are oak, sycamore, hickory, and hackberry (Bedinger, 1979).
Community 1.1
Oak-SycamoreCommunity 1.2
Oak-Hickory-SweetgumCommunity 1.3
Hickory-OakPathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2This pathway consists of lower precipitation, reduced soil moisture, and fewer flooding events.
Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.1This pathway consists of higher precipitation, increased soil moisture, and more frequent flooding events.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.3This pathway consists of lower precipitation, reduced soil moisture, and fewer flooding events.
Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1This pathway consists of higher precipitation, increased soil moisture, and more frequent flooding events.
Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.2This pathway consists of higher precipitation, increased soil moisture, and more frequent flooding events.
State 2
Timber PlantationThe Timber Plantation State consists of merchantable trees planted to maximize production and wood volume. Common species include loblolly pine and oak. Important ecological drivers in this state include timber type (softwood or hardwood) and harvest method.
Drivers: The main drivers are prescribed fires, pest management, vegetation management, and canopy density.
Feedbacks: Timber harvesting is the main feedback mechanism. Management focuses on increasing the growth of cultivated species.Dominant plant species
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loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
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oak (Quercus), tree
Community 2.1
Loblolly PineState 3
PastureThe dominance of more desirable forage species is the main feature of the Pasture State. The quality and quantity of forbs and grass species within this state depend on the level of management inputs (seeding, weed management, and land use). Both warm-season and cool-season grasses are suitable for this ecological site.
The main drivers for community pathways within the Pasture State are the mechanical disturbance of the soil and seed planting, climate effects (decadal scale), seed dispersal, and wildlife and livestock grazing or browsing.
The main feedback mechanism for community pathways in this state is the use of mechanical equipment and chemicals to maintain a productive pasture. Fertilizer inputs and brush management are essential for maintaining high productivity. Wildlife or livestock grazing or browsing reduces the amount of available forage.Dominant plant species
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Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), grass
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red clover (Trifolium pratense), grass
Community 3.1
BermudagrassTransition T1A
State 1 to 2The main triggers for this transition are the planting of merchantable trees, targeted suppression of vegetation, prescribed fire, and fertilization. The main slow variables for this transition are increased production and management of merchantable trees, and tree thinning when appropriate. The main thresholds for this transition are the removal of existing vegetation and the planting of timber species.
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3The main triggers for this transition are tree removal, mechanical and chemical suppression of woody vegetation, tillage, and the introduction of annual or perennial forage species. The main slow variables for this transition are increased production and management of forage species. The main thresholds for this transition are changes in soil properties, such as structure, organic matter, and nutrient cycling, and changes in type and frequency of disturbance.
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1Restoration efforts for this pathway begin with mechanical and chemical treatment of undesirable woody vegetation and seeding native species. A grazing management plan and the reintroduction of historical disturbance regimes must accompany these initial treatments. Returning to a historical fire interval through prescribed burning helps to suppress woody vegetation and manage invasive species.
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3The main triggers for this transition are tree removal, mechanical and chemical suppression of woody vegetation, tillage, and the introduction of annual or perennial forage species. The main slow variables for this transition are increased production and management of forage species. The main thresholds for this transition are changes in soil properties, such as structure, organic matter, and nutrient cycling, and changes in type and frequency of disturbance.
Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1Restoration efforts for this pathway include the removal of introduced species, cessation of suppression activities affecting desirable species, planting of native species, and regeneration. Introduced species may need removing several times before native species can flourish.
Transition T3A
State 3 to 2The main triggers for this transition are the planting of merchantable trees, targeted suppression of vegetation, prescribed fire, and fertilization. The main slow variables for this transition are increased production and management of merchantable trees, and tree thinning when appropriate. The main threshold for this transition is the suppression of introduced forage species due to management strategies and shading.
Additional community tables
Table 5. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 6. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 7. Community 1.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 8. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 9. Community 3.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Animal community
Common wildlife species in this MLRA include whitetail deer, coyote, red fox, gray fox, bobcat, beaver, raccoon, opossum, skunk, muskrat, mink, cottontail, fox squirrel, gray squirrel, bobwhite quail, and mourning dove.
Hydrological functions
The following are estimated withdrawals of freshwater by use in this MLRA:
Public supply—surface water, 24.4%; ground water, 5.1%
Livestock—surface water, 8.1%; ground water, 0.6%
Irrigation—surface water, 0.0%; ground water, 0.0%
Other—surface water, 61.8%; ground water, 0.0%
Total withdrawals average 95 million gallons per day (360 million liters per day). About 6 percent is from groundwater sources, and 94 percent is from surface-water sources. The moderately high precipitation is adequate for crops and pasture. Large reservoirs on a few major streams supply water for municipal purposes, aid in flood control, and provide recreation opportunities. The surface-water quality is generally good, and the water is suitable for most uses. Shallow wells are the principal sources of water for domestic use. Deep wells are necessary for obtaining moderate to large quantities of ground water. Water from the Ozark aquifer system in the northern half of this MLRA is suitable for drinking.Recreational uses
In this MLRA, mountain biking, camping, fishing, hiking, horseback riding, hunting, mineral prospecting, nature viewing, off-highway vehicle riding, and water activities are available where permitted on public land, and where allowed on private land. The Ozark National Forest makes up a significant portion of this MLRA.
Wood products
Public and private timberland cover large areas throughout this MLRA. Loblolly pine is the most popular species to harvest and provides timber for lumber, pulpwood, posts, and poles. Hardwood species provide timber for lumber, flooring, and pulpwood.
Other products
Poultry production is a major industry throughout the MLRA. Small grains, soybeans, and hay are major crops.
Supporting information
References
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Angerer, J., W. Fox, and J. Wolfe. 2016. Land Degradation in Rangeland Ecosystems. Biological and Environmental hazards, Risks, and Disasters. Academic Press.
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Bedinger. 1979. Forests and Flooding with Special Reference to the White River and Ouachita River Basins, Arkansas. US Geological Survey.
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Clark, J.A. and K.R. Covey. 2012. Tree species richness and the logging of natural forests: A meta analysis. Forest Ecology and Management. Elsevier, Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. 146–153.
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DeSantis, R.D., S.W. Hallgreen, and D.W. Stahle. 2010. Historic Fire Regime of an Upland Oak Forest in South Central North America. Fire Ecology. USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Saint Paul, Minnesota.
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Gower, K., J. Fontaine, C. Birnbaum, and N. Enright. 2015. Sequential Disturbance Effects of Hailstorms and Fire on Vegetation in a Mediterranean-Type Ecosystem. Ecosystems 18:1121–1134.
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Guldin, J.M. and M.W. Fitzpatrick. 1991. Comparison of Log Quality from Even-Aged and Uneven-Aged Loblolly Pine Stands in South Arkansas. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 15:10–17.
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Guyette, R.P. and M. A. Spetich. 2003. Fire History of Oak-Pine Forests in the Lower Boston Mountains, Arkansas, USA. Forest Ecology and Management. Elsevier. 463–474.
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Hallgren, S.W., DeSantis. R. D., and J.A. Burton. 2012. Fire and vegetation Dynamics in the Cross Timbers Forests of South-Central North America. Proceedings of the 4th Fire in Eastern Oak Forests Conference. USDA Forest Service General Techincal Report NRS-P-102, Springfield, Missouri. 52–66.
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Hiers, K., R. Wyatt, and R. Mitchell. 2000. The effects of fire regime on legume reproduction in longleaf pine savannas: is a season selective?. Oecologia 125:521–530.
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Liu, C., J. Glitzenstein, P. Harcombe, and R. Knox. 1997. Tornado and fire effects on tree species composition in a savanna in the Big Thicket National Preserve, southeast Texas, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 91:279–289.
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Oklahoma Water Resource Board. September 2012 (Date accessed). Hydrologic Drought of Water Year 2011: A Historical Context.
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Owen, D. 1858. First Geological Reconnaissance Of The Northern Counties Of Arkansas Made During The Years 1857 And 1858. Johnson & Yerkes, State Printers, Little Rock, AR.
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Smith, C. 1940. The Effects of Overgrazing and Erosion Upon the Biota of the Mixed-Grass Prairie of Oklahoma. Ecology. Wiley. 381–397.
Other references
Arkansas Soil Survey
Ouachita National Forest
Arkansas State Parks
The Nature Conservancy
US Fish and Wildlife Service
Encyclopedia of Arkansas
United States Forest Service Southern Research Station
NatureServe
Oklahoma Water Resource Board
National Centers for Environmental Information
University of Arkansas
Oklahoma State University
Arkansas Department of Forestry
Oklahoma Department of ForestryContributors
Trevor Crandall, Ecological Site Specialist
Approval
Bryan Christensen, 9/22/2023
Acknowledgments
Larry Gray Elizabeth Gray Erin Hourihan
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Contact for lead author Date 09/24/2026 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
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Presence of water flow patterns:
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Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
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Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
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Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
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Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
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Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
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Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
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Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
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Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
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Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
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Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
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Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
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Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
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Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
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Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
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Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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