State 1
Reference State

The historical reference state for this ecological site was old growth oak woodland with an open understory and a dense ground flora of native grasses and forbs. This state was dominated by white oak, northern red oak, with occasional black oak, post oak, and shortleaf pine. Periodic disturbances from fire, wind or ice maintained the woodland structure and diverse ground flora species. Long disturbance-free periods allowed an increase in both the density of trees and the abundance of shade tolerant species. Two community phases are recognized in the reference state, with shifts between phases based on disturbance frequency. Reference sites are uncommon today.

Most of these sites have been subject to repeated, high-graded timber harvest (State 3). Fire suppression has resulted in increased canopy density, which has affected the abundance and diversity of ground flora (State 4). Relatively few Igneous Upland Woodlands have been managed effectively for timber harvest (State 2), resulting in either even-age or uneven-age forests. Some areas have been cleared and planted to cool-season grassland species (State 5) and are being used for grazing and haying.

Community 1.1
White Oak-Northern Red Oak/Poverty Oat Grass-Little Bluestem

This phase has white oak and northern red oak that dominate the overstory with little bluestem and poverty oat grass dominating the open ground layer. Numerous forbs and sedges are also present. Shrubs and forest understory trees can be locally abundant.

Forest overstory.Canopy cover ranges from 60 to 80 percent. White oak and northern red oak dominate with scattered black oak and post oak. Shortleaf pine occurs on many sites.

Forest understory. Two understory layers are present - 20 to 30 foot tall small tree layer and a dense native forb and grass ground layer with scattered shrubs.

Community 1.2
White Oak-Red Oak/Oak and Hickory Saplings /Poverty Oat Grass

This phase is similar to community phase 1.1 but oak and hickory densities are increasing due to longer periods of fire suppression. Displacement of some grasses and forbs may be occurring due to shading and competition from the increased densities of oak and hickory saplings in the understory.

Forest overstory.Canopy cover ranges from 70 to 80 percent. White oak and northern red oak dominate with scattered black oak and post oak. An occasional shortleaf pine occurs on many sites.

Forest understory. Displacement of some grasses and forbs is occurring due to shading and competition from the increased densities of oak and hickory saplings.

Pathway 1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

White Oak-Northern Red Oak/Poverty Oat Grass-Little Bluestem

White Oak-Red Oak/Oak and Hickory Saplings /Poverty Oat Grass

This pathway results from a fire-free interval of 10 to 15 years.

Pathway 2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

White Oak-Red Oak/Oak and Hickory Saplings /Poverty Oat Grass

White Oak-Northern Red Oak/Poverty Oat Grass-Little Bluestem

This pathway results from a fire interval of 3 to 5 years.

State 2
Timber Managed Mixed-Oak Forest

This state develops from mixed oak woodlands, which over time, increase in canopy cover, eventually transitioning into forest-like communities. These early woodlands tend to be rather dense with a depauperate understory and ground flora. Periodic timber management, along with the absence of fire, will maintain this phase. Continued exclusion of prescribed fire without a regular 15 to 20 year harvest re-entry into these stands, will slowly create an increase in more shade tolerant species. White oak will become less dominant and understory species such as flowering dogwood and hickory will become more dominate and cause a transition to community phase 2.2. With periodic unmanaged logging that result in high-grading the stand, this state will transition to the High Graded Mixed Oak Woodland state (State 3). Restoration back to the reference state is possible with selective thinning to favor white oak and northern red oak species and a prescribed fire interval of 3 to 5 years are typically used.

Community 2.1
White Oak-Red Oak/Oak and Hickory Saplings

Oak and hickory species are increasing due to fire suppression. Displacement of grasses and forbs is occurring due to shading and competition from the increased densities of oak and hickory saplings. Periodic logging keeps this phase in a younger seral stage of development. Canopy cover ranges from 70 to 85 percent. Most stands are 50 to 80 years of age.

Forest overstory.Canopy cover ranges from 70 to 85 percent. Younger white oak and northern red oak dominate with scattered black oak and post oak. Oak and hickory species are increasing due to fire suppression. Shortleaf pine occurs on many sites.

Forest understory. Displacement of grasses and forbs is occurring due to shading and competition from the increased densities of oak and hickory saplings and more shaded conditions.

Community 2.2
White Oak-Red Oak/Flowering Dogwood

This phase occurs when harvest re-entry and prescribed fire is limited or stopped. Ground cover further diminishes but a richer understory of flowering dogwood, sassafras and serviceberry increases. Canopy cover ranges from 80 to 90 percent. Most stands are 60 to 90 years of age. This phase will transition back to Phase 2.1, if well managed forest harvesting occurs.

Forest overstory.Canopy cover is increasing with white oak, red oak, and hickories dominating the overstory.

Forest understory. Ground cover is diminishing, but a richer understory and mid-story layer of flowering dogwood, sassafras, and serviceberry is increasing.

Pathway 1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

This pathway results from 20 to 30 years of limited logging disturbance.

Pathway 2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

This pathway results from well managed forest harvesting.

State 3
High Graded Mixed-Oak Woodland

This state is subjected to repeated, high-grading timber harvests resulting in a significant reduction in white oak and northern red oak densities. Fire cessation has also occurred. This state exhibits an over-abundance of black oak and hickory and other less desirable tree species, and weedy understory species such as coralberry, gooseberry, poison ivy and Virginia creeper. Proper forest management techniques can create a transition to State 2. This state is often experiences clearing/clear-cutting and conversion to grassland, State 5.

Community 3.1
Black Oak-Hickory/Red Maple /Buckbrush

This phase is dominated by black oak and hickories along with other less commercially valuable woody species. White oak and northern red oak are greatly diminished or even removed due to repeated high-grading, timber harvesting of the stand.

Forest overstory.Black oak and hickories along with other less commercially valuable woody species are common. White oak is greatly diminished or even removed.

Forest understory. A weedy understory of species such as buckbrush, gooseberry, poison ivy and Virginia creeper is increasing.

State 4
Fire Excluded Mixed-Oak Woodland/Forest

This state is dominated by white oak and northern red oak. They can form relatively even-aged stands, dating to when fire suppression became the dominant management characteristic on the site. This stage can occur relatively quickly (10 to 20 years). Canopy closures can approach 70 to 90 percent with decreasing ground flora. Without active management or long term presence of fire, woody species will continue to encroach into these woodlands. Once established, these woody species can quickly fill the woodland system.

Most occurrences of this state today are dense and shady with a greatly diminished ground flora. Removal of the younger understory, opening the upper canopy, and the application of prescribed fire has proven to be effective management tools in restoring the stage back to the reference state. Some logging typically occurs. These states are good wildlife sites.

Community 4.1
White Oak-Northern Red Oak/Red Maple-Oak and Hickory Saplings/Huckleberry

This phase, due to fire exclusion, has higher densities of red maple and oak and hickory saplings that increase shade levels. Grass and forb diversity and ground cover are decreasing.

Forest overstory.The overstory has increased densities of red maple and white and northern red oak.

Forest understory. The understory is dense and shady with a greatly diminished ground flora.

State 5
Grassland

Conversion of wooded sites to planted, non-native grassland species such as tall fescue is a stage that is primarily associated with summit and shoulder positions of this ecological site. If active grassland management is discontinued, the site will eventually transition to phase 5.2 with an increase in broomsedge and oak sprouts. Return to the reference state from this state may be impossible requiring a very long term series of costly management options and stages. Many species may need to be eventually planted or reseeded to restore the system.

Conversion to grassland may result in soil loss from the clearing process and from erosion before the grassland is well established. Long-term grassland management results in higher soil pH levels and higher levels of calcium and magnesium from pasture liming. These effects may extend a foot or more into the soil profile. The effects of liming are more evident in phase 5.1.

Community 5.1
Tall Fescue-Red Clover

This phase is well managed grassland, composed of non-native cool season grasses and legumes. Grazing and haying is occurring. The effects of long-term liming on soil pH, and calcium and magnesium content, is most evident in this phase. Studies show that these soils have higher pH and higher base status in soil horizons as much as two feet below the surface, relative to poorly managed grassland phase 5.2 and to woodland communities where liming is not practiced (Conant and others, 2001; Schellberg, and others, 1999).

Community 5.2
Tall Fescue-Broomsedge/Oak Sprouts

This phase is the result of poor grassland management. Over grazing and little fertility application has allowed broomsedge and oak sprouts to increase in cover and density reducing overall forage quality and site productivity. Soil pH and bases such as calcium and magnesium are lower, relative to well-managed pastures (phase 5.1).

Pathway 2A
Community 5.2 to 5.1

Tall Fescue-Broomsedge/Oak Sprouts

Tall Fescue-Red Clover

This pathway results from brush mangament, grassland seeding, and good grassland management including rotational grazing and integrated pest management.

Transition 1C
State 1 to 2

This transition is the result of well managed forest harvesting for timber products.

Transition 1A
State 1 to 2

This transition is the result of fire suppression that exceeds 20 years.

Transition 1A
State 1 to 3

This transition is the result of fire suppression that exceeds 20 years.

Transition 1B
State 1 to 3

This transition is the result of periodic unmanaged logging that results in high-grading the stand.

Transition 1A
State 1 to 4

This transition is the result of fire suppression that exceeds 20 years.

Restoration pathway 2A
State 2 to 1

This restoration pathway is the result of selective thinning to favor white oak and red oak species and a prescribed fire interval of 3 to 5 years.

Transition 2A
State 2 to 3

This transition is the result of periodic unmanaged logging that results in high-grading the stand.

Restoration pathway 3A
State 3 to 2

This restoration pathway results in cessation of unmanaged logging; selective thinning and harvesting with a forest management plan.

Transition 3A
State 3 to 5

This transition is the result of site clearing/clear cutting, grassland seeding, and grassland management.

Restoration pathway 4A
State 4 to 1

This restoration pathway results in selective thinning to favor white oak and red oak species and to open up the understory canopy. A prescribed fire interval of 3 to 5 years is initiated.

Transition 4A
State 4 to 2

This transition is the result of well managed forest harvesting for timber products.

Restoration pathway 5A
State 5 to 4

This restoration pathway is the result of cessation of grazing and haying, native tree, forb, and grass planting. (This may be a long restoration process.)