State 1
Reference

The historical reference state for this ecological site was old growth, oak woodland. The reference state was dominated by white oak and black oak. Periodic disturbances from fire, wind or ice maintained the woodland structure and diverse ground flora species. Long disturbance-free periods allowed an increase in both the density of trees and the abundance of shade tolerant species. Two community phases are recognized in the reference state, with shifts between phases based on disturbance frequency. Reference states are rare today. Many sites have been converted to grassland (State 5). Others have been subject to repeated, high-graded timber harvest coupled with uncontrolled domestic livestock grazing (State 6). Fire suppression has resulted in increased canopy density, which has affected the abundance and diversity of ground flora. Some former reference states have been managed effectively for timber harvests, resulting in either even-age (State 2) or uneven-age (State 3) woodlands.

Community 1.1
White Oak – Black Oak/Fragrant Sumac/Sedge – Little Bluestem

This phase has old growth white oak and black oak that dominate the overstory with little bluestem and sedge dominating the open ground layer. Numerous forbs and grasses are also present. Shrubs and forest understory trees can be locally abundant.

Forest overstory.Forest Overstory Species list is based on field reconnaissance as well as commonly occurring species listed in Nelson 2010; names and symbols are from USDA PLANTS database.

Forest understory. Forest Understory Species list is based on field reconnaissance as well as commonly occurring species listed in Nelson 2010; names and symbols are from USDA PLANTS database.

Community 1.2
White Oak – Black Oak/Hickory Saplings/Sedge – Little Bluestem

This phase is similar to community phase 1.1 but oak and hickory densities are increasing due to longer periods of fire suppression. Displacement of some grasses and forbs may be occurring due to shading and competition from the increased densities of oak and hickory saplings in the understory.

Pathway P1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

This pathway is the result of a disturbance-free interval >10 years.

Pathway P1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

This pathway is the result of a fire 10 to 20-year disturbance cycle being reestablished.

State 2
Even-Age Managed Woodland

This state starts with a sequence of early seral mixed oak woodlands, which mature over time. These woodlands tend to be rather dense, with a depauperate understory and ground flora. Thinning can increase overall tree vigor and improve understory diversity. However, in the absence of fire, the diversity and cover of the ground flora is still diminished. Continual timber management, depending on the practices used, will either maintain this state, or convert the site to uneven-age (State 3) woodlands. Prescribed fire without extensive timber harvest will, over time, cause a transition to Managed Oak Woodlands (state 4).

Community 2.1
Black Oak – White Oak – Post Oak/Fragrant Sumac

This is an even-aged forest management phase. Logging activities are removing higher volumes of white oak causing a decrease in white oak in the canopy and an increase in black oak and post oak. Large group, shelterwood or clearcut harvests create a more uniform age class structure throughout the canopy layer while also opening up the understory and allowing more sunlight to reach the forest floor.

State 3
Uneven-Age Managed Woodland

Composition and stand age are likely altered from the reference state depending on tree selection during harvest. In addition, without a regular 15 to 20 year harvest re-entry into these stands, they will slowly increase in more shade tolerant species and white oak will become less dominant. Uneven Age Managed Woodland is also denser because of fire suppression. Consequently, the woodland ground flora is suppressed, and structural diversity is increased. Without periodic disturbance, stem density and fire intolerant species, like sassafras and hickory, increase in abundance.

Community 3.1
Black Oak – Hickory/Sassafras/Eastern Bottlebrush Grass

This is an uneven-aged forest management phase. Selective logging activities are removing higher volumes of white oak causing a decrease in white oak in the canopy and an increase in black oak and hickory. Densities numbers, especially more shade tolerant species, are increasing in the lower size-class levels.

State 4
Managed Silvopasture

The Managed Silvopasture state results from managing woodland communities (States 2 or 3) with prescribed fire, canopy thinning, and controlled grazing. This state can resemble the reference state, but with younger maximum tree ages, more open canopies and lower ground flora diversity. Cessation of grazing and controlled harvesting will allow transition to various managed woodland states.

Community 4.1
White Oak – Black Oak/Little Bluestem

This is the only phase associated with this state at this time. See the corresponding state narrative for details.

State 5
Grassland

Conversion of woodlands to planted, non-native cool season grassland species such as tall fescue is common for this region. Steep slopes, surface fragments, low organic matter contents and soil acidity make grasslands harder to maintain in a healthy, productive state on this ecological site.

Two community phases are recognized in the grassland state, with shifts between phases based on types of management. Poor management will result in a shift to Community 5.2 that shows an increase in oak sprouting and increases in broomsedge densities. If grazing and active pasture management is discontinued, the site will eventually transition to State 2 from this phase.

Community 5.1
Tall Fescue - Red Clover

This phase is well managed grassland, composed of non-native cool season grasses and legumes. Grazing and haying is occurring. The effects of long-term liming on soil pH, and calcium and magnesium content, is most evident in this phase. Studies show that these soils have higher pH and higher base status in soil horizons as much as two feet below the surface, relative to poorly managed grassland and to woodland communities (where liming is not practiced).

Community 5.2
Tall Fescue - Broomsedge/Oak Sprouts

This phase is the result of poor grassland management. Over grazing and little fertility application has allowed broomsedge and oak sprouts to increase in cover and density reducing overall forage quality and site productivity. Soil pH and bases such as calcium and magnesium are lower, relative to well-managed pastures.

Pathway P5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2

This pathway is the result of over grazing and lack of proper grassland management.

Pathway P5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.1

This pathway is the result of brush management, grassland re-seeding and proper grassland management.

State 6
High-Graded/Grazed Woodland

States that were subjected to repeated, high-grading timber harvests and uncontrolled domestic grazing transitioned to a High-Graded/Grazed Woodland state. This state exhibits an over-abundance of hickory and other less desirable tree species, and weedy understory species such as coralberry, gooseberry, poison ivy and Virginia creeper. The existing vegetation offers little nutritional value for cattle, and excessive cattle stocking damages tree boles, degrades understory species composition and results in soil compaction and accelerated erosion and runoff.

Two common transitions from this state are woody clearing and conversion to State 5, grassland or removing livestock, limited harvesting, and allowing long term succession to occur to some other woodland state.

Community 6.1
Black Oak-Hickory / Sassafras/Buckbrush

This is the only phase associated with this state at this time. See the corresponding state narrative for details.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

This transition typically results from even-age timber management practices, such as clear-cut, seed tree or shelterwood harvest.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

This transition typically results from uneven-age timber management practices, such as single tree or group selection harvest along with fire suppression.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

This transition is the result of clearing the woodland community and planting pasture species. Soil erosion can be extensive in this process, along with loss of organic matter. Liming and fertilizing associated with pasture management typically raises the soil pH and increases the cation concentration (such as calcium and magnesium) of the upper soil horizons.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 6

This transition is the result of poorly planned timber harvest techniques such as high-grading, accompanied by unmanaged cattle grazing. Soil erosion and compaction often result from cattle grazing after the understory has been damaged.

Restoration pathway R1B
State 2 to 1

This restoration transition generally requires forest management practices with extended rotations that allow mature trees to exceed ages of about 120 years along with prescribed fire.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

This transition typically results from uneven-age timber management practices, such as single tree or group selection harvest.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

This transition is the result of the systematic application of prescribed fire and grazing management. Mechanical thinning may also be used.

Restoration pathway R1A
State 3 to 1

This restoration pathway is the result of the systematic application of prescribed fire. Mechanical thinning may also be used along with understory removal and extended rotations.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

This transition typically results from even-age timber management practices, such as clear-cut, seed tree or shelterwood harvest.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

This transition typically results from even-age forest management practices, such as clear-cut, seed tree or shelterwood harvest and no grazing.

Transition T4B
State 4 to 3

This transition typically results from uneven-age timber management practices, such as single tree or group selection harvest and cessation of grazing.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 2

This transition results from the cessation of cattle grazing and associated pasture management such as mowing and brush management. Herbicide application, tree planting and timber stand improvement techniques can speed up this otherwise very lengthy transition.

Transition T6B
State 6 to 3

This transition typically results from uneven-age timber management practices, such as single tree or group selection harvest. Tree planting, mechanical thinning and other timber stand improvement techniques may be helpful to decrease the transition time.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 5

This transition typically results from uneven-age timber management practices, such as single tree or group selection harvest and cessation of grazing.