State 1
Reference

The Reference State is dominated by warm-season perennial grasses, a composite of predominantly native species of tallgrasses and midgrasses, interspersed with numerous perennial forbs. A small component of shrubs and cool-season grasses also occur. This state has two plant community phases that are dynamic in nature and are dependent on fire frequency and grazing impacts.

Characteristics and indicators. An introduction and/or increase of woody plants can occur in the Reference State and initiates the transition to the Woody Invaded State. The lengthening of fire return interval, lack of fire intensity, and lack of competition from the warm-season perennial grasses, the greater chance of woody species to establish and increase. Within the Reference State, the woody vegetation will generally be less than 15 percent canopy cover per acre. Sites that have been continuously overgrazed will transition to the Degraded Native State. An introduction of seed from introduced, invasive or noxious plants can occur in the Reference State and is the starting point for transition to the Pastureland and/or Invasive Herbaceous State. If introduced, invasive, or noxious plants are present, they should not exceed those percentages shown in the plant communities identified in the Pastureland State and Invasive Herbaceous State.

Resilience management. The Reference State is maintained through fire, grazing, and management. Fire will have a return interval of one to three years that includes the timing and intensity to negatively impact undesirable species. Grazing will include a forage-animal balance and adaptive decision-making to ensure the dominant plants within the reference plant community can maintain vigor. Management will include strategies to prevent non-native seed introduction (woody or herbaceous) and scouting with targeted control methods if initial establishment occurs.

Community 1.1
Reference

Figure 7. Bona Glad Natural Area, USACOE, Dade Co.

The interpretive plant community for the Shallow Sandstone Upland is a tallgrass plant community and represents the original plant composition that existed prior to European settlement. The site is characterized as a grassland with some trees and large shrubs, dominated by a mixture of four warm-season grasses. Big bluestem, switchgrass and Indiangrass are the major tallgrasses and little bluestem is the dominant midgrass. Combined, these four grasses will account for 70 to 80 percent of vegetation produced annually. Other prevalent midgrasses are marsh bristlegrass, plains muhly, purpletop tridens, sideoats grama, composite dropseed and purple lovegrass.

Intermittent seeps along steeper slopes may support additional tallgrasses such as eastern gamagrass, prairie cordgrass and Florida paspalum.

The site produces a wide variety of warm-season forb species that are interspersed throughout the grass sward. The most important include compassplant, wholeleaf rosinweed, Maximilian sunflower, stiff sunflower, pitcher sage and purple pale echinacea. Nuttall’s sensitive-briar, prairie bundleflower, slender lespedeza and violet prairie clover are the most abundant legumes.

Leadplant and Jersey tea are low-growing shrubs that occur throughout the site. In some locations prairie rose and scattered mottes of winged sumac and fragrant sumac may be present. Unlike most shrubs, these species are quite tolerant to fire. Roughleaf dogwood may occasionally be found growing in the shadow of rock outcrops on steeper slopes where it receives protection from fire. In some locations there may be a few plants of blackjack oak and post oak growing in protected areas.

Resilience management. This is a stable plant community when adequately managed. A prescribed grazing program that incorporates periods of deferment during the growing season benefits the tallgrasses and even the more palatable forb species. It is not uncommon for portions of this site to be partially avoided by livestock due to slope or the presence of surface rock.

Community 1.2
Woody Midgrass

This plant community developed because of many years of continuous overgrazing. Midgrasses dominate the site and comprise 60 to 70 percent of annual production. The most abundant midgrasses include little bluestem, marsh bristlegrass, composite dropseed, sideoats grama, purpletop tridens, broomsedge bluestem, purple lovegrass and beaked panicum. Shortgrasses such as Carolina crabgrass, tumble windmill grass, hairy grama, buffalograss, Kentucky bluegrass and sedges produce 10 to 15 percent of the vegetation.

Remnant plants of big bluestem, Indiangrass and switchgrass, although sparse, are often found scattered throughout the site. In some locations they escape close grazing because of the protection of surface rock. In less-protected areas these plants are usually grazed repeatedly and remain in a low state of vigor. Of these remnants, big bluestem is generally the most abundant because of rhizomes that can persist for many years in a weakened condition. When in this state, new growth consisting of three to five leaves will emerge in a prostrate position rather than upright. This allows the plants to partially escape grazing by cattle. These remnants respond favorably to periods of rest from grazing and may regain vigor in two to three years.

Forb production is quite variable and may range from 10 to 30 percent of the total vegetation depending on amounts and timing of rainfall events. Perennial forbs include white heath aster, white sagebrush, Missouri goldenrod, ashy sunflower, tall eupatorium, Baldwin’s ironweed and Cuman ragweed. Annual forbs common on the site are prairie broomweed, annual ragweed, and prairie fleabane.

Most of the more-palatable shrubs such as leadplant, Jersey tea and prairie rose have disappeared. Other less-desirable shrubs such as coralberry, roughleaf dogwood, blackberry and smooth sumac have increased and may comprise 10 percent of the vegetation. Elm, common hackberry, blackjack oak, post oak, and eastern redcedar are the major trees found on the site.

Resilience management. Prescribed grazing with adequate rest and recovery periods during the growing season will shift this plant community to include more productive midgrasses. With continued management the taller grasses will gradually increase in abundance.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Fire free interval of 5-10 years

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Fire intervals 3-5 years.

State 2
Woody Invaded

This State is dominated by a shrub and/or tree plant community. The increase and spread of shrubs and trees resulted from an absence of fire and will be accelerated by seed introduction and/or spread. Woody plants can increase up to 34% from a lack of fire according to a study from 1937 to 1969, in contrast to a 1% increase on burned areas (Bragg and Hulbert, 1976). Periodic burning will hinder the establishment of most woody species and favor forbs and grasses. However, not all unburned areas have a woody plant invasion. Birds, small mammals, and livestock are instrumental in the distribution and spread of seed for most tree and shrub species common to this site. The speed of encroachment varies considerably and can occur on both grazed and non-grazed sites.

Characteristics and indicators. Hydrologic function in the Woody Invaded State is affected by the amount of shrub and/or tree cover compared to the Reference State. Canopy interception loss can vary from 25.4% to 36.7% (Thurow and Hester, 1997). A small rainfall event is usually retained in the foliage and does not reach the litter layer at the base of the tree. Only when canopy storage is reached and exceeded does precipitation fall to the soil surface. Interception losses associated with the accumulation of leaves, twigs, and branches at the bases of trees are considerably higher than losses associated with the canopy. The decomposed material retains approximately 40% of the water that is not retained in the canopy (Thurow and Hester, 1997). Soil properties affected include biological activity, infiltration rates, and soil fertility.

Community 2.1
Shrubs and/or Trees

This plant community is dominated by shrubs and trees. Roughleaf dogwood, coralberry, blackberry and winged sumac are generally the most abundant shrubs. Trees including elm, common hackberry, persimmon, Osage-orange and eastern redcedar have invaded and become well-established. In some locations blackjack oak and post oak have increased and form large colonies. Shrubs and trees may produce 30 to 60 percent of the total vegetation.
The spread of shrubs and trees results from an absence of fire because periodic burning tends to hinder the establishment of most of these woody species and favors forbs and grasses. However, not all unburned areas are invaded by woody plants. Birds, small mammals and livestock are instrumental in distributing seed and accelerating the spread of most shrubs common to this site. When both grazing and fire have been excluded for many years, associated grasses generally are big bluestem, little bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, sedges and Canada wildrye.

Grass yields are significantly reduced because of the shrub and tree competition and vary from 30 to 50 percent of the total vegetative production. Forbs generally produce 10 to 20 percent of the total. Major forbs include white sagebrush, white heath aster, Cuman ragweed, Baldwin ironweed, and Canada goldenrod.

State 3
Degraded Native

This State is a result of continuous overgrazing which allows broomsedge bluestem and other undesirable species to invade and become established. The cover, diversity and vigor of native species has decreased, and the ecological dynamics of these sites has changed. Potential physical site damage by continuous uncontrolled livestock grazing may further degrade this state.

Characteristics and indicators. This State is present when broomsedge bluestem becomes established and reaches 30-40% total production. These sites often have a significant present of woody species as well, especially eastern redcedar. Soil properties and chemistry of the site are often changed by the dominance of broomsedge, and this species can have allopathic effects on other native species. Fertilizer is commonly suggested to help increase production in other grasses. This will further change soil chemistry from its original state. This is partly why there is no known restoration pathway back to the Reference State.

Community 3.1
Broomsedge Bluestem

Broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) is present at levels reaching 30-40% by weight on a per acre basis and is governing the ecological processes and potential uses of this community. Sites that are dominated by broomsedge often have altered soil properties and chemistry. Broomsedge can have allopathic effects on other native species. These sites may also have blackberry, purpletop tridens, various panicum, threeawn, and broomweed species present.

State 4
Invasive Herbaceous

The Invasive Herbaceous State is identified by a significant presence of non-native herbaceous plant species and is characterized by the composition of plant species and soil functions that govern the ecological processes.

Characteristics and indicators. Species that define this state include sericea lespedeza. Sericea lespedeza community phases are partially defined by the total production exceeding 15% by weight on a per acre basis. Ecological processes within this state that are affected and differ from the Reference State are hydrologic cycle and nutrient cycle. Water content and infiltration rates are also affected by the species in the plant community phase.

Resilience management. The Invasive Herbaceous State is sustained through continued reduction in health and vigor of native plant species and the increase in health and vigor, including seed production, of non-native herbaceous species. Ensuring a lack of forage quality due to season of grazing, and type of grazing animal, of the non-native plants will deter grazing of non-native plant species and increase grazing pressure on native plant species. A general lack of treatment measures for individual species control, maintenance, and/or eradication will also allow persistence of this state.

Community 4.1
Sericea Lespedeza

Sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) is present at levels exceeding 15% by weight on a per acre basis and governing the ecological processes and potential uses of this community. Sericea lespedeza is invasive and listed as a statewide noxious weed in Kansas. It competes with the native plant community for sunlight, water, and nutrients, and produces allelopathic compounds (toxic chemicals that negatively impact the germination and/or growth of other plants). It also contains tannins, that limit palatability, and produces copious amounts of seed that remain viable in the soil for decades. This species will quickly invade rangelands without proactive control measures.

Resilience management. Sericea lespedeza (<a class="species-link" href="https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=LECU" target="_blank" title="Open in plants.usda.gov"><i>Lespedeza cuneata</i></a>) is extremely competitive with its allelopathic nature, lower palatability compared to native species, and good seedling vigor. To prevent further loss of native plant composition, ensure native plant vigor remains high via a forage-animal balance based on forage composition and palatability, utilize spot application of herbicides to control new and existing sericea lespedeza plants, and consider diversifying grazing livestock type. Control measures for sericea lespedeza involve herbicide application following extension recommendations and product label for proper rates and timing. Utilization and control can also be provided through sheep and goat grazing. Conventional management practices such as prescribed grazing with cattle and dormant-season fire have been less than effective in preventing the spread of sericea lespedeza in rangelands. Some suppression of sericea lespedeza has been observed after mowing or summer burning. Late summer fire significantly reduces seed production the year of burn. An integrated approach is needed when treating this species.

State 5
Pastureland

The Pastureland State is identified by a significant presence of non-native herbaceous plant species and is characterized by the composition of plant species, agronomic inputs from direct fertilization, and soil functions that govern the ecological processes. Sites consisting of introduced species and managed for their continued presence or spread should not be evaluated within this model and instead, consider using a separate land use model such as Pasture.

Characteristics and indicators. Tall fescue, smooth brome, and Kentucky bluegrass are partially defined by the total production exceeding 40% by weight on a per acre basis. Ecological processes within this state that are affected and differ from the Reference State are hydrologic cycle and nutrient cycle. Water content and infiltration rates are also affected by the species in the plant community phase.

Resilience management. Pastureland is sustained through continued reduction in health and vigor of native plant species and the increase in health and vigor, including seed production, of non-native herbaceous species. Agronomic inputs from direct fertilization or nutrient-rich runoff from adjacent crop fields will provide advantages for non-native cool-season grass species growth. Ensuring a lack of forage quality due to season of grazing, type of grazing animal, or chemical composition of the non-native plants will deter grazing of non-native plant species and increase grazing pressure on native plant species. A general lack of treatment measures for individual species control, maintenance, and/or eradication will also allow persistence of this state.

Community 5.1
Fescue, Brome, Bluegrass

Tall fescue, smooth brome, and Kentucky bluegrass (all being cool-season grasses) are present at levels exceeding 40% by weight on a per acre basis and are governing the ecological processes and potential uses of this community. Timing of plant growth has shifted from summer (May through August) and now mostly occurs in spring and fall (March to May and September to November). Fire intensity of late spring burns can be greatly impeded due to the significant quantity of cool-season grass present. Any one or a combination of these species can be considered an invaded community. Soil dynamic property changes include biological activity and soil fertility.

Resilience management. Tall fescue, smooth brome, and Kentucky bluegrass are sustained or increased with nutrient additions and absence of fire. To prevent further loss of native plant composition, avoid nutrient additions, ensure native plant vigor remains high via a forage-animal balance based on forage composition and seasonal availability, utilize herbicides when natives are dormant but cool-seasons are actively growing, and utilize consecutive late spring prescribed burns. Chemical control will involve herbicide application following extension recommendations and product label for proper rates and timing. Intensifying grazing pressure (leaf removal of cool-season grasses) during the spring and fall and removing grazing pressure during the summer will reduce cool-season grass vigor and allow native warm-season plants an opportunity to maximize growth and gain vigor. Prescribed burning will require sufficient standing dead material in order to conduct a burn in late spring as warm-season grasses initiate growth. If the goal is continued presence or spread of tall fescue, smooth brome, or Kentucky bluegrass, consider using a separate land use model such as Pasture.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Fire suppression greater than 20 years.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Long term uncontrolled grazing will convert the Reference State to Degraded Native State

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

A transition from Reference to an Invasive Herbaceous State occurs when the site is invaded by Sericea lespedeza with the total production exceeding 15% by weight on a per acre basis.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 5

Seeding of cool season grasses and forbs and proper pasture management will transition this Reference State to a Pastureland.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Cedar removal; prescribed fire.