Natural Resources
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Ecological site F107XB015MO
Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forest
Last updated: 5/21/2020
Accessed: 09/18/2026
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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
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Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 107X–Iowa and Missouri Deep Loess Hills
The Iowa and Missouri Deep Loess Hills (MLRA 107B) includes the Missouri Alluvial Plain, Loess Hills, Southern Iowa Drift Plain, and Central Dissected Till Plains landform regions (Prior 1991; Nigh and Schroeder 2002). It spans four states (Iowa, 53 percent; Missouri, 32 percent; Nebraska, 12 percent; and Kansas 3 percent), encompassing over 14,000 square miles (Figure 1). The elevation ranges from approximately 1,565 feet above sea level (ASL) on the highest ridges to about 600 feet ASL along the Missouri River near Glasgow in central Missouri. Local relief varies from 10 to 20 feet in the major river floodplains, to 50 to 100 feet in the dissected uplands, and loess bluffs of 200 to 300 feet along the Missouri River. Loess deposits cover most of the area, with deposits reaching a thickness of 65 to 200 feet in the Loess Hills and grading to about 20 feet in the eastern extent of the region. Pre-Illinoian till, deposited more than 500,000 years ago, lies beneath the loess and has experienced extensive erosion and dissection. Pennsylvanian and Cretaceous bedrock, comprised of shale, mudstones, and sandstones, lie beneath the glacial material (USDA-NRCS 2006).
The vegetation in the MLRA has undergone drastic changes over time. Spruce forests dominated the landscape 30,000 to 21,500 years ago. As the last glacial maximum peaked 21,500 to 16,000 years ago, the spruce forests were replaced with open tundras and parklands. The end of the Pleistocene Epoch saw a warming climate that initially prompted the return of spruce forests, and as the warming continued, spruce trees were replaced by deciduous trees (Baker et al. 1990). Not until approximately 9,000 years ago did the vegetation transition to prairies as climatic conditions continued to warm and subsequently dry. Between 4,000 and 3,000 years ago, oak savannas began intermingling within the prairie landscape, while the more wooded and forested areas maintained a foothold in sheltered areas. This prairie-forest transition ecosystem formed the dominant landscapes until the arrival of European settlers (Baker et al. 1992).Classification relationships
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): Iowa and Missouri Deep Loess Hills (107B) (USDA-NRCS 2006)
USFS Subregions: Central Dissected Till Plains Section (251C); Missouri River Alluvial Plain (251Cg) (Cleland et al. 2007)
U.S. EPA Level IV Ecoregion: Missouri Alluvial Plain (47d) (USEPA 2013)
Biophysical Setting (LANDFIRE 2009): Eastern Great Plains Floodplain System (4214690)
Ecological Systems (National Vegetation Classification System, Nature Serve 2015): North-Central Interior Floodplain (CES202.694)
Eilers and Roosa (1994): Missouri River Alluvium Region: Riverine Systems
Iowa Department of Natural Resources (INAI nd): Cottonwood Forest
Lauver et al. (1999): Populus deltoides – Salix nigra – Acer saccharinum Forest
Missouri Natural Heritage Program (Nelson 2010): Riverfront Forest
Nebraska Game and Parks Commission (Steinauer and Rolfsmeier 2010): Cottonwood – Diamond Willow Woodland; Sandbar Willow Shrubland
Plant Associations (National Vegetation Classification System, Nature Serve 2015): Populus deltoides – Salix nigra – Acer saccharinum Floodplain Forest (CEGL002018)Ecological site concept
Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forests are located within the green areas on the map (Figure 1). They occur on floodplains adjacent to the channel. Soils are Entisols and Mollisols that are very poorly to excessively well-drained and very deep, formed from alluvium. The site experiences deep (two to five feet) headwater flooding every one to three years. Flooding typically occurs early in the growing season and is fast, frequent, and of a short duration that deposits sediments and debris along the forest floor. Soil saturation from these flood events can last approximately ten to twenty percent of the growing season (Nelson 2010). As a result, the plant community is comprised mostly of hydrophytic woody and herbaceous vegetation. Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forests occur in between the river channel and other floodplain forest ecological sites.
The historic pre-European settlement vegetation on this site was dominated by a moderately to poorly-structured canopy of deciduous trees with a patchy and sparse understory of shade-tolerant shrubs and herbs (Nelson 2010). Eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides W. Bartram ex Marshall) and American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) are the dominant trees in this ecological site, while narrowleaf willow (Salix exigua Nutt.) and peachleaf willow (Salix amygdaloides Andersson) form an important sub-canopy component. Others canopy associates can include silver maple (Acer saccharinum L.), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marshall), American elm (Ulmus americana L.), river birch (Betula nigra L.), and yellow willow (Salix lutea Nutt.). Herbaceous species typical of an undisturbed plant community associated with this ecological site include common earlyleaf brome (Bromus latiglumis (Shear) Hitchc.) and blue wood aster (Symphyotrichum cordifolium (L.) G.L. Nesom) (Drobney et al. 2001; Steinauer and Rolfsmeier 2010; Nelson 2010; Ladd and Thomas 2015). Historically, seasonal flooding was the primary disturbance factor, while windthrow events and beaver predation were secondary factors (LANDFIRE 2009; Nelson 2010).Associated sites
F107XB017MO Clayey Floodplain Forest
Clayey alluvium soils on floodplains near stream channel including Albaton, Blencoe, Blend, Leta, Myrick, Onawa, Onawet, Owego, Parkville, Percival, and SansDessein
F107XB016MO Loamy Floodplain Forest
Silty alluvium soils on floodplains near stream channel including Blake, Danbury, Floris, Gilliam, Grable, Grable variant, Haynie, Haynie variant, Kenridge, Landes, Lossing, McPaul, Modale, Modale variant, Moniteau, Morconick, Motark, Moville, Nodaway, Omadi, Paxico, Ray, Rodney, Scroll, Ticonic, Udifluvents, Udorthents, and Waubonsie
R107XB018MO Ponded Floodplain Marsh
Ponded soils on floodplains including Aquolls, Darwin, Fluvaquents, Forney, and Levasy
Similar sites
F107XB016MO Loamy Floodplain Forest
Loamy Floodplain Forests are similar in landscape position but parent material is silty alluvium
F107XB017MO Clayey Floodplain Forest
Clayey Floodplain Forests are similar in landscape position but parent material is clayey alluvium
F107XB026MO Wet Floodplain Woodland
Wet Floodplain Woodlands are not adjacent to the channel
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree (1) Populus deltoides
(2) Platanus occidentalisShrub (1) Salix exigua
(2) Salix amygdaloidesHerbaceous (1) Campanula americana
(2) Rudbeckia laciniataPhysiographic features
Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forests occur on floodplains adjacent to the channel within the Missouri River alluvial valley (Figure 2). This ecological site is situated on elevations ranging from approximately 350 to 1,650 feet ASL. This site experiences rare to frequent flooding, inundating the site with up to 60 inches of water at a time (Nelson 2010).
Figure 2. Figure 1. Location of Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forest ecological site within MLRA 107B.
Figure 3. Figure 2. Representative block diagram of Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forest and associated ecological sites.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Hillslope profile (1) Toeslope
Slope shape across (1) Linear
Slope shape up-down (1) Linear
Landforms (1) Flood plain
Flooding duration Very long (more than 30 days) to long (7 to 30 days) Flooding frequency Rare to frequent Ponding frequency None Elevation 354 – 1650 ft Slope 0 – 11 % Water table depth 18 – 80 in Aspect Aspect is not a significant factor Climatic features
The Iowa and Missouri Deep Loess Hills falls into two Köppen-Geiger climate classifications (Peel et al. 2007): hot humid continental climate (Dfa) dominates the majority of the MLRA with small portions in the south falling into the humid subtropical climate (Cfa). In winter, dry-cold air masses periodically shift south from Canada. As these air masses collide with humid air, snowfall and rainfall result. In summer, moist, warm air masses from the Gulf of Mexico migrate north, producing significant frontal or convective rains (Decker 2017). Occasionally, high pressure will stagnate over the region, creating extended droughty periods. These periods of drought have historically occurred on 22-year cycles (Stockton and Meko 1983).
The soil temperature regime of MLRA 107B is classified as mesic, where the mean annual soil temperature is between 46 and 59°F (USDA-NRCS 2006). Temperature and precipitation occur along a north-south gradient, where temperature and precipitation increase the further south one travels. The average freeze-free period of this ecological site is about 184 days, while the frost-free period is about 163 days (Table 2). The majority of the precipitation occurs as rainfall in the form of convective thunderstorms during the growing season. Average annual precipitation is 37 inches, which includes rainfall plus the water equivalent from snowfall (Table 3). The average annual low and high temperatures are 41 and 63°F, respectively.
Climate data and analyses are derived from 30-year average gathered from eleven National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) weather stations contained within the range of this ecological site (Table 4).Table 3 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 130-150 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) 160-190 days Precipitation total (characteristic range) 30-40 in Frost-free period (actual range) 130-160 days Freeze-free period (actual range) 160-190 days Precipitation total (actual range) 30-40 in Frost-free period (average) 150 days Freeze-free period (average) 180 days Precipitation total (average) 40 in Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 4. Monthly precipitation range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 5. Monthly minimum temperature range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 6. Monthly maximum temperature range
BarLineFigure 7. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 8. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 9 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) LEAVENWORTH [USC00144588], Fort Leavenworth, KS
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(2) RULO 2W [USC00257401], Falls City, NE
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(3) BLAIR [USC00250930], Blair, NE
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(4) NEBRASKA CITY 2NW [USC00255810], Nebraska City, NE
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(5) GLENWOOD 3SW [USC00133290], Glenwood, IA
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(6) ATCHISON [USC00140405], Atchison, KS
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(7) OMAHA EPPLEY AIRFIELD [USW00014942], Omaha, NE
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(8) BRUNSWICK [USC00231037], De Witt, MO
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(9) LEXINGTON 3E [USC00234904], Lexington, MO
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(10) ST JOSEPH ROSECRANS AP [USW00013993], Wathena, MO
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(11) SIOUX CITY GATEWAY AP [USW00014943], Sioux City, IA
">Influencing water features
Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forests are classified as a RIVERINE wetland under the Hydrogeomorphic (HGM) classification system (Smith et al. 1995; USDA-NRCS 2008) and as Palustrine, Forested, Broad-Leaved Deciduous, Temporarily Flooded under the National Wetlands Inventory (FGDC 2013). The site is subject to seasonal flooding from the adjacent stream to depths of three to five feet. Infiltration is moderate to high (Hydrologic Groups A and B) for undrained soils, and surface runoff is low. Flooding occurs every one to three years, and surface water or soil saturation can persist for approximately ten to twenty percent of the growing season (Nelson 2010).
Figure 10. Figure 5. Hydrologic cycling in Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forest ecological site.
Soil features
Soils of Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forests are in the Entisol and Mollisol orders, further classified as Aquic Udifluvents, Mollic Udifluvents, Oxyaquic Udifluvents, Typic Udifluvents, Typic Udipsamments, and Fluvaquentic Hapludolls with high infiltration and negligible to low runoff potential. The soil series associated with this site includes Alluvial land, Buckney, Carr, Grable, Haynie, Hodge, Kenmoor, Psammaquents, Riverwash, Sarpy, Treloar, and Waubonsie. The parent material is alluvium, and the soils are moderately well to excessively-drained and very deep with seasonal high water tables. Soil pH classes are slightly acid to moderately alkaline. No rooting restrictions are noted for the soils of this ecological site.
Figure 11. Figure 6. Profile sketches of soil series associated with Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forest.
Table 4. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Alluvium
Surface texture (1) Loamy fine sand
(2) Very fine sandy loam
Family particle size (1) Coarse-loamy
Drainage class Moderately well drained to excessively drained Permeability class Moderately slow to moderately rapid Soil depth 20 – 80 in Available water capacity
(0-40in)3 – 8 in Calcium carbonate equivalent
(0-40in)0 – 30 % Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)0 – 2 mmhos/cm Sodium adsorption ratio
(0-40in)Not specified Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-40in)6.1 – 8.4 Ecological dynamics
The Loess Hills region lies within the transition zone between the eastern deciduous forests and the Great Plains, with the Missouri River flowing through the middle. The heterogeneous topography of the area results in variable microclimates and fuel matrices that in turn are able to support prairies and savannas or woodlands and forests (Nelson 2010). Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forests form an aspect of this vegetative continuum. This ecological site occurs on floodplains adjacent to the channel on sandy/loamy alluvial soils. Species characteristic of this ecological site consist of hydrophytic woody and herbaceous species.
Flooding is the dominant disturbance factor in Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forests. Within MLRA 107B, seasonal headwater flooding occurs on average every one to three years. Floodwaters are fast and deep (two to five feet), and flooding can last from a couple days on stream tributaries to weeks along big rivers. The receding floodwaters deposit sediment and debris along the forest floor. Soil saturation can occur for brief periods during the early growing season, lasting about ten to twenty percent of the season (Nelson 2010).
Windthrow events and beaver activity influence this site to a lesser, more localized extent (LANDFIRE 2009; Nelson 2010). Windthrow events are mostly caused from tornadoes and associated winds and generally occur in the early summer months. Immediate responses to high wind events can alter forest structure and species richness or eveness, thereby impacting species diversity. Composition can also shift to one containing more early-successional species (Peterson 2000). Beaver disturbances can be highly variable across the MLRA and likely had little impact on stands less than ten years old (LANDFIRE 2009).
Today, many original Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forests have been reduced as a result of drainage and clearing for agriculture and urban development. Sites have also been degraded by stream channelization, levee construction, and overgrazing that alter the hydrologic flood cycles and, ultimately, the reference plant community. Invasive species, such as garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata L.), Japanese hop (Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc.), creeping jenny (Lysimachia nummularia L.)), and dames rocket (Hesperis matronalis (L.)) have been invading this site and reducing native species diversity (Nelson 2010; Steinauer and Rolfsmeier 2010).State and transition model
Custom diagramStandard diagram
Figure 12. STM
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
States 2 and 5 (additional transitions)
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 5 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference StateThe reference plant community is categorized as a riverfront forest. The two community phases within the reference state are dependent on seasonal and catastrophic flooding. Long-term sediment accumulation can promote site stabilization that encourages a mature overstory canopy to develop. A catastrophic flood event removes much of the vegetation, resetting the site to an earlier stage of succession where willows and hydrophytic herbaceous vegetation dominate the site. Windthrow, beaver predation, and periodic insect and disease outbreak have less impact in the reference phases, but do contribute to overall species composition, diversity, cover, and productivity.
Dominant plant species
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
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sandbar willow (Salix interior), shrub
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peachleaf willow (Salix amygdaloides), shrub
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cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata), other herbaceous
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American bellflower (Campanulastrum americanum), other herbaceous
Community 1.1
Eastern Cottonwood – American Sycamore/Sandbar Willow – Peachleaf Willow/American Bellflower – Cutleaf ConeflowerEastern cottonwood and American sycamore are the dominant tree species for this reference community phase, with silver maple, green ash, American elm, river birch, and common hackberry (Celtis occidentalis L.) as closely associated sub-canopy species. The canopy is a moderately-structured uneven-aged stand with tree heights ranging between 40 to 110 feet tall (Nelson 2010). The shrub layer is most commonly populated by sandbar willow and peachleaf willow, but yellow willow, silky dogwood (Cornus obliqua Raf.) and western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook.) can also occur. Numerous shade-tolerant sedges and forbs form a sparse to moderate herbaceous layer and include American bellflower, cutleaf coneflower, Canadian wood nettle (Laportea canadensis (L.) Weddell), and wild ryes (Elymus L.), (Nelson 2010; Steinauer and Rolfsmeier 2010).
Dominant plant species
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
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sandbar willow (Salix interior), shrub
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peachleaf willow (Salix amygdaloides), shrub
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American bellflower (Campanulastrum americanum), other herbaceous
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cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata), other herbaceous
Community 1.2
Sandbar Willow – Eastern Cottonwood saplings/Scouringrush HorsetailThis reference community phase can occur following a catastrophic flood event. Vegetation is sparse initially following the scouring, but sandbar willow quickly inhabits the recently deposited alluvium (Steinauer and Rolfsmeier 2010). Eastern cottonwood and American sycamore seeds readily germinate in the freshly scoured floodplain (Sullivan 1994; Taylor 2001). The understory is sparse and lacking in diversity. Scouringrush horsetail (Equisetum hyemale L.) is a common hydrophyte to inhabit the recently-disturbed ground (Steinauer and Rolfsmeier 2010).
Dominant plant species
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sandbar willow (Salix interior), shrub
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scouringrush horsetail (Equisetum hyemale), grass
Pathway P1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2Natural succession as a result of a catastrophic flood event.
Pathway P1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1Natural succession of 10 to 30 years.
State 2
Hydrologically Altered StateAgricultural drainage, land-clearing, urban development, stream channelization, and levee construction in the watershed has drastically changed the natural hydrologic cycle of Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forests. Upland soil erosion and excessive sedimentation from floodwaters alters the historic vegetative composition, while exotic species are able to inhabit and continuously spread, reducing native diversity and ecosystem stability (Nelson 2010; Steinauer and Rolfsmeier 2010).
Dominant plant species
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
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black willow (Salix nigra), shrub
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reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), grass
Community 2.1
Eastern Cottonwood – American Sycamore/Black Willow – Peachleaf Willow/Redtop – Reed CanarygrassThis community phase represents a shift in mostly understory plant community composition as a result of excessive siltation. Eastern cottonwood and American sycamore remain the co-dominant overstory species, while black willow (Salix nigra Marshall) becomes a co-dominant shrub with peachleaf willow. The understory maintains some native species, but conditions become suitable for the initial invasion of non-natives like redtop and reed canarygrass.
Dominant plant species
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
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black willow (Salix nigra), shrub
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peachleaf willow (Salix amygdaloides), shrub
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redtop panicgrass (Panicum rigidulum), grass
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reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), grass
Community 2.2
Eastern Cottonwood – American Sycamore/Black Willow/Reed CanarygrassThis community phase represents continued excessive siltation. Eastern cottonwood and American sycamore canopies mature and increase cover, and black willow forms the dominant shrub component as peachleaf willow is reduced due to alterations of the hydraulic regime (Fryer 2012). Reed canarygrass is tolerant of high sedimentation rates and therefore dominates the understory to the near exclusion of all other species (Mahaney et al. 2005; Chen et al. 2014).
Dominant plant species
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
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black willow (Salix nigra), shrub
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reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), grass
Pathway P2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2Continuing hydrologic alterations within the watershed
Pathway P2.1A
Community 2.2 to 2.1Non-native invasive species control
State 3
Cool Season Pasture StateThe cool-season pasture state occurs when the reference state has been anthropogenically-altered for livestock production. Early settlers harvested the trees for timber and fuel and seeded such non-native cool-season species as Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), converting the woodland to pasture (Smith 1998; IDNR 2013). Over time, as lands were continually grazed by large herds of cattle, the non-native species were able to spread and expand across the site, reducing the native species diversity. However, these sites are difficult to maintain due to frequent flooding and low available water capacity.
Dominant plant species
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Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
Community 3.1
Reed Canarygrass – Kentucky BluegrassSites in this community phase arise from tree removal and seeding of non-native cool-season grasses (Steinauer and Rolfsmeier 2010). Cottonwoods and sycamores have some timber value and were harvested to supply the timber market for early settlers. Flood events allowed the regeneration of some eastern cottonwoods, but heavy grazing adversely affects the maturation of seedlings (Taylor 2001). Reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) and Kentucky bluegrass were common species used for pasture planting. Grazing by livestock maintain this simplified grassland state.
Dominant plant species
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Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
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reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), grass
State 4
Cropland StateThe Midwest is well-known for its highly-productive agricultural soils, and as a result, much of the MLRA has been converted to cropland, including portions of this ecological site. The continuous use of tillage, row-crop planting, and chemicals (i.e., herbicides, fertilizers, etc.) have effectively eliminated the reference community and many of its natural ecological functions in favor of crop production. Corn (Zea mays L.) and soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) are the dominant crops for the site. These areas are likely to remain in crop production for the foreseeable future.
Community 4.1
Conventional Tillage FieldSites in this community phase typically consist of monoculture row-cropping maintained by conventional tillage practices. They are cropped in either continuous corn or corn-soybean rotations. The frequent use of deep tillage, low crop diversity, and bare soil conditions during the non-growing season negatively impact soil health. Under these practices, soil aggregation is reduced or destroyed, soil organic matter is reduced, erosion and runoff are increased, and infiltration is decreased, which can ultimately lead to undesirable changes in the hydrology of the watershed (Tomer et al. 2005).
Community 4.2
Conservation Tillage FieldThis community phase is characterized by rotational crop production that utilizes various conservation tillage methods to promote soil health and reduce erosion. Conservation tillage methods include strip-till, ridge-till, vertical-till, or no-till planting systems. Strip-till keeps seedbed preparation to narrow bands less than one-third the width of the row where crop residue and soil consolidation are left undisturbed in-between seedbed areas. Strip-till planting may be completed in the fall and nutrient application either occurs simultaneously or at the time of planting. Ridge-till uses specialized equipment to create ridges in the seedbed and vegetative residue is left on the surface in between the ridges. Weeds are controlled with herbicides and/or cultivation, seedbed ridges are rebuilt during cultivation, and soils are left undisturbed from harvest to planting. Vertical-till systems employ machinery that lightly tills the soil and cuts up crop residue, mixing some of the residue into the top few inches of the soil while leaving a large portion on the surface. No-till management is the most conservative, disturbing soils only at the time of planting and fertilizer application. Compared to conventional tillage system, conservation tillage methods can reduce soil erosion, increase organic matter and water availability, improve water quality, and reduce soil compaction.
Community 4.3
Conservation Tillage Field/Alternative Crop FieldThis condition applies conservation tillage methods as described above as well as adds cover crop practices. Cover crops typically include nitrogen-fixing species (e.g., legumes), small grains (e.g., rye, wheat, oats), or forage covers (e.g., turnips, radishes, rapeseed). The addition of cover crops not only adds plant diversity but also promotes soil health by reducing soil erosion, limiting nitrogen leaching, suppressing weeds, increasing soil organic matter, and improving the overall soil. In the case of small grain cover crops, surface cover and water infiltration are increased, while forage covers can be used to graze livestock or support local wildlife. Of the three community phases for this state, this phase promotes the greatest soil sustainability and improves ecological functioning within a cropland system.
Pathway P4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2Tillage operations are greatly reduced, crop rotation occurs on a regular schedule, and crop residue is allowed to remain on the soil surface.
Pathway P4.1B
Community 4.1 to 4.3Tillage operations are greatly reduced or eliminated, crop rotation is either reduced or eliminated, and crop residue is allowed to remain on the soil surface, and cover crops are implemented to prevent soil erosion.
Pathway P4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1– Intensive tillage is utilized and monoculture row-cropping is established.
Pathway P4.2B
Community 4.2 to 4.3Cover crops are implemented to prevent soil erosion.
Pathway P4.3B
Community 4.3 to 4.1Intensive tillage is utilized, cover crops practices are abandoned, monoculture row-cropping is established, and crop rotation is reduced or eliminated.
Pathway P4.3A
Community 4.3 to 4.2Cover crop practices are abandoned.
State 5
Reconstructed Forest StateThe combination of natural and anthropogenic disturbances occurring today has resulted in a number of ecosystem health issues, and restoration back to the historic reference condition is likely not possible. Many natural forest communities are being stressed by non-native diseases and pests, habitat fragmentation, permanent changes in hydrologic regimes, and overabundant deer populations on top of naturally-occurring disturbances (severe weather and native pests) (Flickinger 2010; Nelson 2010). However, these habitats provide multiple ecosystem services including carbon sequestration; clean air and water; soil conservation; biodiversity support; wildlife habitat; as well as a variety of cultural activities (e.g., hiking, hunting) (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005; Flickinger 2010). Therefore, conservation of bottomland forests should still be pursued. Habitat reconstructions are an important tool for repairing natural ecological functioning and providing habitat protection for numerous species of Sandy/Loamy Floodplain Forests. Therefore ecological restoration should aim to aid the recovery of degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystems. A successful restoration will have the ability to structurally and functionally sustain itself, demonstrate resilience to the ranges of stress and disturbance, and create and maintain positive biotic and abiotic interactions (SER 2002). The reconstructed forest state is the result of a long-term commitment involving a multi-step, adaptive management process.
Community 5.1
Early Successional Reconstructed ForestThis community phase represents the early community assembly from forest reconstruction. It is highly dependent on the current condition of the site based on past and current land management actions, invasive species, and proximity to land populated with non-native pests and diseases. Therefore, no two sites will have the same early successional composition. Technical forestry assistance should be sought to develop suitable stewardship management plans.
Community 5.2
Late Successional Reconstructed ForestAppropriately timed management practices (e.g., prescribed fire, hazardous fuels management, forest stand improvement, continuing integrated pest management) applied to the early successional community phase can help increase the stand maturity, pushing the site into a late successional community phase over time. A late successional reconstructed forest will have an uneven-aged, closed canopy and a well-developed understory.
Pathway P5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2Application of stand improvement practices in line with a developed management plan.
Pathway P5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.1Reconstruction experiences a setback from extreme weather event or improper timing of management actions.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2Altered hydrology from stream channelization and levee construction transition this site to the hydrologically-altered state (2).
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3Woody species reduction, interseeding of non-native, cool-season grasses, and continuous grazing transition this site to the cool-season pasture state (3).
Transition T1C
State 1 to 4Installation of drain tiles, tillage, seeding of agricultural crops, and non-selective herbicide transition this site to the cropland state (4).
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 5Site preparation, tree planting, timber stand improvement, non-native species control, and water control structures installed to improve and regulate hydrology transition this site to the reconstructed forest state (5).
Transition T3A
State 3 to 4Installation of drain tiles, tillage, seeding of agricultural crops, and non-selective herbicide transition this site to the cropland state (4).
Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 5Site preparation, tree planting, timber stand improvement, and water control structures installed to improve and regulate hydrology transition this site to the reconstructed forest state (5).
Restoration pathway T4A
State 4 to 3Non-selective herbicide, seeding of non-native cool-season grasses, and continuous grazing transitions the site to the cool-season pasture state (3).
Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 5Site preparation, tree planting, timber stand improvement, and water control structures installed to improve and regulate hydrology transition this site to the reconstructed forest state (5).
Transition T5A
State 5 to 2Removal of water control structures and unmanaged invasive species populations transition this site to the hydrologically-altered state (2).
Restoration pathway T5B
State 5 to 3Tree removal and interseeding non-native cool-season grasses transition this site to the cool-season pasture state (3).
Transition T5C
State 5 to 4Tillage, seeding of agricultural crops, and non-selective herbicide transition this site to the cropland state (4).
Additional community tables
Table 5. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 6. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 7. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 8. Community 2.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 9. Community 3.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 10. Community 4.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 11. Community 4.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 12. Community 4.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 13. Community 5.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 14. Community 5.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Animal community
Wildlife (MDC 2006)
This community provides important streamside attributes such as: riparian stability; stream shading, important floodplain connectivity between the river and interior sloughs, and inputs to streams of coarse woody debris.
Tall emergent sycamores and cottonwoods along with an uneven canopy structure and canopy gaps are important for heron colonies, eagle nesting, Mississippi kites, cerulean warblers and other bird species and are important migratory songbird stopover sites.
Bird species associated with early-successional Floodplain Forests include: White-eyed Vireo, Yellow-breasted Chat, Common Yellowthroat, Indigo Bunting, Gray Catbird, Willow Flycatcher, Orchard Oriole, and Brown Thrasher.
Birds associated with mid-successional Floodplain Forests include: American Redstart, Northern Parula, and Willow Flycatcher.
Birds associated with late-successional Floodplain Forests include: Great Blue Heron (colonies especially in large sycamores and cottonwoods), Bald Eagle, Belted Kingfisher, Red-shouldered Hawk, Northern Parula, Louisiana Waterthrush, Wood Duck, Hooded Merganser, and Swainson’s Warbler (sites with giant cane or dense sapling/brambles in the understory).
Amphibian and reptile species associated with Floodplain Forest include: small-mouthed salamander, central newt, midland brown snake, gray treefrog, and southern leopard frog.
Other information
Forestry
Management: Site index values may exceed 80. Soil fertility and available water capacity may be low to moderate. Timber management opportunities are fair to good. Create group openings of at least 2 acres. Large clearcuts should be minimized if possible to reduce impacts on wildlife and aesthetics. Uneven-aged management using single tree selection or small group selection cuttings of ½ to 1 acre are other options that can be used if clear cutting is not desired or warranted. Harvest methods that leave some mature trees to provide shade and soil protection may be desirable. Maintain adequate riparian buffer areas.
Limitations: Seasonal wetness; sandy profile. The sandy upper layer may hinder the use of wheeled equipment especially when the soil is saturated or very dry. Seedling mortality may occur because of lack of adequate soil moisture during dry periods.
Supporting information
Inventory data references
No field plots were available for this site. A review of the scientific literature and professional experience were used to approximate the plant communities for this provisional ecological site. Information for the state-and-transition model was obtained from the same sources. All community phases are considered provisional based on these plots and the sources identified in ecological site description.
Other references
Baker, R.G., C.A. Chumbley, P.M. Witinok, and H.K. Kim. 1990. Holocene vegetational changes in eastern Iowa. Journal of the Iowa Academy of Science 97: 167-177.
Baker, R.G., L.J. Maher, C.A. Chumbley, and K.L. Van Zant. 1992. Patterns of Holocene environmental changes in the midwestern United States. Quarternary Research 37: 379-389.
Chen, X., Z. Deng, Y. Xie, F. Li, Z. Hou, X. Li, and Y.F. Li. 2014. Effects of sediment burial disturbance on the vegetative propagation of Phalaris arundinacea with different shoot statuses. Aquatic Ecology 48: 409-416.
Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C. Carpenter, and W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of the Coterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. Washington, DC. 92 pps.
Decker, W.L. 2017. Climate of Missouri. University of Missouri, Missouri Climate Center, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources. Available at http://climate.missouri.edu/climate.php. (Accessed 24 February 2017).
Drobney, P.D., G.S. Wilhelm, D. Horton, M. Leoschke, D. Lewis, J. Pearson, D. Roosa, and D. Smith. 2001. Floristic Quality Assessment for the State of Iowa. Neal Smith National Wildlife Refuge and Ada Hayden Herbarium, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.
Eilers, L. and D. Roosa. 1994. The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City, IA. 319 pps.
Federal Geographic Data Committee [FGDC]. 2013. Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater habitats of the United States. FGDC-STD-004-2013. Second Edition. Wetlands Subcommittee, Federal Geographic Data Committee and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 86 pps.
Flickinger, A. 2010. Iowa Forests Today: An Assessment of the Issues and Strategies for Conserving and Managing Iowa’s Forests. Iowa Department of Natural Resources. 329 pps.
Fryer, J.L. 2012. Salix amygdaloides. In: Fire Effects Information System [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available at https://www.feis-crs.org/feis/. (Accessed 16 May 2017).
Iowa Natural Areas Inventory [INAI]. No date. Vegetation Classification of Iowa. Iowa Natural Areas Inventory, Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Des Moines, IA.
Ladd, D. and J.R. Thomas. 2015. Ecological checklist of the Missouri Flora for Floristic Quality Assessment. Phytoneuron 12: 1-274.
LANDFIRE. 2009. Biophysical Setting 4214690 Eastern Great Plains Floodplain System. In: LANDFIRE National Vegetation Dynamics Models. USDA Forest Service and US Department of Interior. Washington, DC.
Lauver, C.L., K. Kindscher, D. Faber-Langendoen, and R. Schneider. 1999. A classification of the natural vegetation of Kansas. The Southwestern Naturalist 44: 421-443.
Mahaney, W.M., D.H. Wardrop, and R.P. Brooks. 2005. Impacts of sedimentation and nitrogen enrichment on wetland plant community development. Plant Ecology 175: 227-243.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Current States and Trends. World Resources Institute. Island Press, Washington, D.C. 948 pages.
NatureServe. 2015. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.1 NatureServe, Arlington, VA. Available at http://explorer.natureserve.org. (Accessed 13 February 2017).
Nelson, P. 2010. The Terrestrial Natural Communities of Missouri, Revised Edition. Missouri Natural Areas Committee, Department of Natural Resources and the Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, MO. 500 pps.
Nigh, T.A. and W.A. Schroeder. 2002. Atlas of Missouri Ecoregions. Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri.
Peel, M.C., B.L. Finlayson, and T.A. McMahon. 2007. Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 11: 1633-1644.
Peterson, C.J. 2000. Catastrophic wind damage to North American forests and the potential impact of climate change. The Science of the Total Environment 262: 287-311.
Prior, J.C. 1991. Landforms of Iowa. University of Iowa Press for the Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Iowa City, IA. 153 pps.
Smith, R.D., A. Ammann, C. Bartoldus, and M.M. Brinson. 1995. An Approach for Assessing Wetland Functions Using Hydrogeomorphic Classification, Reference Wetlands, and Functional Indices. Wetlands Research Program Technical Report WRP-DE-9. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Washington, DC. 78 pps.
Society for Ecological Restoration [SER] Science & Policy Working Group. 2002. The SER Primer on Ecological Restoration. Available at: http://www.ser.org/. (Accessed 28 February 2017).
Stambaugh, M.C., R.P. Guyette, E.R. McMurry, and D.C. Dey. 2006. Fire history at the Eastern Great Plains Margin, Missouri River Loess Hills. Great Plains Research 16: 149-59.
Steinauer, G. and S. Rolfsmeier. 2010. Terrestrial Natural Communities of Nebraska, Version IV. Unpublished report of the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission. Lincoln, NE. 224 pps.
Stinson, K.A., S.A. Campbell, J.R. Powell, B.E. Wolfe, R.M. Callaway, G.C. Thelen, S.G. Hallett, D. Prati, and J.N. Klironomos. 2006. Invasive plant suppresses the growth of native tree seedlings by disrupting belowground mutualisms. PLOS Biology 4: 0727-0731.
Stockton, C.W. and D.M. Meko. 1983. Drought recurrence in the Great Plains as reconstructed from long-term tree-ring records. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology 22: 17-29.
Sullivan, J. 1994. Platanus occidentalis. In: Fire Effects Information System [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available at https://www.feis-crs.org/feis/. (Accessed 16 May 2017).
Taylor, J.L. 2001. Populus deltoides. In: Fire Effects Information System [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available at https://www.feis-crs.org/feis/. (Accessed 16 May 2017).
Tomer, M.D., D.W. Meek, and L.A. Kramer. 2005. Agricultural practices influence flow regimes of headwater streams in western Iowa. Journal of Environmental Quality 34: 1547-1558.
United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296. 682 pps.
United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2008. Hydrogeomorphic Wetland Classification System: An Overview and Modification to Better Meet the Needs of the Natural Resources Conservation Service. Technical Note No. 190-8-76. 8pps.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. 2013. Level III and Level IV Ecoregions of the Continental United States. Corvallis, OR, U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, map scale 1:3,000,000. Available at http://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-andiv-ecoregions-continental-united-states. (Accessed 1 March 2017).Approval
Chris Tecklenburg, 5/21/2020
Acknowledgments
This project could not have been completed without the dedication and commitment from a variety of partners and staff (Table 6). Team members supported the project by serving on the technical team, assisting with the development of state and community phases of the state-and-transition model, providing peer review and technical editing, and conducting quality control and quality assurance reviews. Organization Name Title Location Drake University: Dr. Tom Rosburg Professor of Ecology and Botany Des Moines, IA Iowa Department of Natural Resources: Lindsey Barney District Forester Oakland, IA John Pearson Ecologist Des Moines, IA LANDFIRE (The Nature Conservancy): Randy Swaty Ecologist Evanston, IL Natural Resources Conservation Service: Rick Bednarek IA State Soil Scientist Des Moines, IA Stacey Clark Regional Ecological Site Specialist St. Paul, MN Tonie Endres Senior Regional Soil Scientist Indianapolis, IA John Hammerly Soil Data Quality Specialist Indianapolis, IN Lisa Kluesner Ecological Site Specialist Waverly, IA Sean Kluesner Earth Team Volunteer Waverly, IA Jeff Matthias State Grassland Specialist Des Moines, IA Kevin Norwood Soil Survey Regional Director Indianapolis, IN Doug Oelmann Soil Scientist Des Moines, IA James Phillips GIS Specialist Des Moines, IA Dan Pulido Soil Survey Leader Atlantic, IA Melvin Simmons Soil Survey Leader Gallatin, MO Tyler Staggs Ecological Site Specialist Indianapolis, IN Jason Steele Area Resource Soil Scientist Fairfield, IA Doug Wallace Ecological Site Specialist Columbia, MO
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Lisa Kluesner Contact for lead author Date 09/18/2026 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
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Presence of water flow patterns:
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Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
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Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
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Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
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Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
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Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
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Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
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Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
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Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
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Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
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Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
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Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
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Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
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Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
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Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
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Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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PrintThe Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.
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