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Approved. An approved ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model, enough information to identify the ecological site, and full documentation for all ecosystem states contained in the state and transition model.
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Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 106X–Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills
Named the “Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills,” Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 106 is divided almost evenly between southeastern Nebraska (52%), and northeastern Kansas, (48%). The approximately seven-million-acre landscape covers all or parts of thirty counties between the two states. The northern border is located on the north end of Saunders County, Nebraska, and the MLRA extends into Douglas County, Kansas in the south. The Nebraska cities of Beatrice and Lincoln are the major population centers in the north, while Topeka and Lawrence in Kansas are the primary cities in the south. The Platte, Little Nemaha, and the North Fork of the Big Nemaha Rivers flow through the Nebraska side of the MLRA, while the Black Vermillion, the Soldier, and the Delaware Rivers are the major waterways on the Kansas side. The Big Blue River runs through both states, while the Salt Creek hydrologic system located near Lincoln, Nebraska provides habitat for the only known population of the Federally listed endangered Salt Creek Tiger Beetle.
This dissected glacial drift plain primarily consists of broad, smooth ridgetops, and slopes ranging from nearly level to steep. The elevation in MLRA 106 decreases from west to east, and ranges from nearly 1,650 feet to less than 790 feet above sea level. Stream valleys in this landscape are narrow and bordered by steep hills, with 10 to 20 feet of local relief. The river valleys are broader and may drop up to over 160 feet below the adjacent hilltops. The uplands are primarily comprised of glacial drift underlying a mantle of loess, while alluvial deposits are found in the stream and river valleys. Limestone and shale quarries are also located in MLRA 106. The predominant soil orders in this MLRA are mesic, udic, Mollisols, Alfisols, and Entisols. Loams and clays are the primary soil textures in this landscape.
Sixty-two percent of the land in this MLRA has been broken out of native prairie and farmed, while only 23 percent of the grasslands remain. Livestock grazing, primarily by cattle, is the main industry on these remnants. Corn, wheat, soybeans, and grain sorghum are the primary commodity crops, but a significant number of acres are also planted to alfalfa for harvest as hay. With annual precipitation averaging from 40 inches in the southeast, to 28 inches in the northwest, irrigation for crop production is not a critical factor in most years.
The historical matrix vegetation type is Tallgrass Prairie, and big and little bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, sideoats, and blue grama make up the bulk of the warm season species. Historically, western wheatgrass was the dominant cool season grass but today the dominant cool season grasses are introduced grasses, smooth brome in the north and tall fescue in the south. Large and small patch vegetative communities are found primarily along the riparian zones, and on both upland and lowland saline sites. Woodlands make up about six percent of MLRA 106, consisting primarily of green ash, oak, hackberry, boxelder, and maple trees.
Wildlife flourishes in this combination of crop and grassland environments. In a landscape historically occupied by bison herds, white-tailed deer are now the most abundant wild ungulates. A variety of smaller species, including coyote, raccoon, opossum, porcupines, muskrat, beaver, squirrel, and mink thrive in the region. Native grassland bird populations are limited by the lack of contiguous native prairie and the fragmented habitat created by the farmland. The rivers, streams, and lakes harbor excellent fisheries, and migrating and local waterfowl use the wetland complexes. These complexes provide ideal habitat for wading and shore bird species as well.
This landscape serves as a backdrop for a disturbance driven ecosystem, evolving under the influences of herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Historically, these processes created a heterogeneous mosaic of plant communities and structure heights across the region. Any given site in this landscape experienced fire every three to four years. Fires were caused by lightning strikes and also were set by Native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. The indigenous inhabitants understood the value of fire as a tool and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing game animals such as bison and elk.
Land use patterns by post European settlers have fragmented the native grasslands through conversion to cropland, transportation corridors, and other developments. This has significantly altered the natural fire regime allowing encroachment by native and introduced shrubs and trees into the native prairie remnants throughout the MLRA. Aggressive fire suppression policies have exacerbated this process to the point that shrub and tree encroachment is a major ecological threat in the majority of both native and reseeded grasslands. Introduction of eastern red cedar as a windbreak species further facilitates invasion by this species. While eastern red cedar is native to the landscape, the historic population in MLRA 106 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainageways that were protected from fire. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern red cedar as a primary component have provided a seed source for the aggressive woody plant. The ensuing encroachment into the native grasslands degrades the native wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock. Since it is not a root sprouter, eastern red cedar is very susceptible to fire when under six feet tall. Management with prescribed fire is exceedingly effective if applied before this stage. Larger eastern red cedars can also be controlled with fire, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques.Classification relationships
►USDA-NRCS (2022)◄
Land Resource Region – M, Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) – 106
►Fenneman (1916) Physiographic Regions ◄
Division – Interior Plains
Province – Central Lowland
Section – Dissected Till Plains
►USDA-USFS (2007) Ecoregions◄
Domain – Humid Temperate
Division – Prairie
Province – Prairie Parkland (Temperate)
Section – Central Dissected Till Plains (251C)
►EPA Ecoregions (Omernik 1997)◄
I – Great Plains (9)
II – Temperate Prairies (9.2)
III – Western Corn Belt Plains (9.2.3)
IV – Loess and Glacial Drift Hills (47i)
►Associated Counties◄
Nebraska: Butler, Cass, Gage, Jefferson, Johnson, Lancaster, Nemaha, Otoe, Pawnee, Richardson, Saline, Saunders, Seward
Kansas: Atchison, Brown, Doniphan, Douglas, Franklin, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Leavenworth, Marshall, Nemaha, Osage, Pottawatomie, Shawnee, Wabaunsee, Washington, WyandotteEcological site concept
The Loamy Upland ecological site occurs on upland landscapes and does not receive any additional moisture from runoff or overflow. The typical slopes range from 0 to 30 percent, but the majority of Loamy Upland sites are found on slopes of 15 percent or less. Soils are deep (36 to 60 inches) to very deep (greater than 60 inches) with surface textures of predominately silt loam, loam, silty clay loam, or clay loam that are typically 6 to 25 inches thick but may be thicker. These moderately well to somewhat excessively well drained soils are formed from a wide range of parent materials including loess, till, alluvium, colluvium, and residuum. Vegetation in the Reference Community (1.1) is dominated by warm-season tall grasses with a significant presence of warm-season mid grasses and cool-season grasses. Dominant grasses include big bluestem, Indiangrass, and little bluestem. Other significant grasses include switchgrass, little bluestem, sideoats grama, and porcupinegrass. Forbs are common and diverse. This site is susceptible to invasion of non-native cool-season grasses, especially smooth brome and tall fescue. A significant portion of this site has been converted to production agriculture, primarily corn and soybeans.
Associated sites
R106XY070NE Loamy Terrace
The Loamy Terrace ecological site occupies a lower landscape position but is often adjacent to Loamy Upland ecological sites.
R106XY074NE Clayey Upland
Similar landscape positions and often intermixed; best distinguished by >35% clay content
R106XY077NE Shallow Limy
The Shallow Limy ecological site is often adjacent to Loamy Upland ecological sites, but Shallow Limy sites typically occur on steeper areas and narrow summits.
Similar sites
R106XY074NE Clayey Upland
The Clayey Upland ecological site is found on similar landscape positions and is often intermixed with Loamy Upland sites. Clayey Uplands are found on soils with higher clay content (>35%) than soils of Loamy Uplands.
R106XY070NE Loamy Terrace
The Loamy Terrace ecological site and Loamy Upland sites are found on soils with similar textures, available water capacity, and similar physical and chemical properties but the Loamy Terrace site receives additional moisture in the form of runoff from uplands while Loamy Upland sites occupy run-off landscape positions.
R106XY076NE Limy Upland
The Limy Upland ecological sites occurs on similar landscape positions with similarly textured soils but has a presence of calcium carbonate at or near the surface which is not present in soils of the Loamy Upland ecological site.
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree Not specified
Shrub (1) Amorpha canescens
(2) Ceanothus herbaceusHerbaceous (1) Andropogon gerardii
(2) Sorghastrum nutansPhysiographic features
The Loamy Upland ecological site occurs on nearly level to steep slopes on backslopes, shoulders and summits of uplands. While slopes range from 0 to 30 percent or steeper, the vast majority of Loamy Uplands sites are found on slopes of 15 percent or less.
Figure 2. Loamy Upland Catena
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) Upland > Hillslope
Runoff class Medium to very high Flooding frequency None Ponding frequency None Elevation 600 – 1800 ft Slope 0 – 30 % Water table depth 36 – 72 in Aspect Aspect is not a significant factor Climatic features
Like most Great Plains landscapes, the climate in this MLRA is under the sway of the continental effect. This creates a regime of extremes, with summer highs often in the triple digits and winter lows plunging well below zero. Blizzards can occur anytime between early fall and late spring, dropping the temperature more than 50 degrees in just a few hours. These events can pile up several feet of snow, often driven by winds in excess of 50 miles an hour. The resulting huge snow drifts can cause serious hardship for livestock, wildlife, and humans. Winters can be open, with bare ground for most of the season, or closed, with several feet of snow persisting until March. Most winters have a number of warm days interspersed with dropping temperatures, usually associated with approaching cold fronts. Spring brings violent thunderstorms, hail, and high winds. Tornadoes occur frequently.
About three-fourths of the precipitation falls as high intensity, convective thunderstorms from late in spring through early in autumn. The average annual precipitation gradient trends higher from northwest (28”) to southeast (40”), and the average annual temperature gradient trends higher from north (50°F) to south (55°F). Daily winds range from an average of 14 miles per hour during the spring to 11 miles per hour during the late summer. Occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 80 miles per hour.
Native cool-season plants begin growth in early April and continue to about mid-June. Native warm-season plants begin growth in early June and continue to early August. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October.Table 3 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 140-150 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) 160-190 days Precipitation total (characteristic range) 30-40 in Frost-free period (actual range) 130-150 days Freeze-free period (actual range) 150-190 days Precipitation total (actual range) 30-40 in Frost-free period (average) 140 days Freeze-free period (average) 170 days Precipitation total (average) 30 in Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 3. Monthly precipitation range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range
BarLineFigure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 8 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) BONNER SPRINGS [USC00140957], Bonner Springs, KS
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(2) CENTRALIA [USC00141408], Centralia, KS
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(3) HIAWATHA 9 ESE [USC00143634], Robinson, KS
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(4) HORTON [USC00143810], Horton, KS
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(5) PERRY LAKE [USC00146333], Perry, KS
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(6) SYRACUSE [USC00258395], Syracuse, NE
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(7) TECUMSEH 1S [USC00258465], Tecumseh, NE
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(8) WEEPING WATER [USC00259090], Weeping Water, NE
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(9) TOPEKA MUNI AP [USW00013996], Topeka, KS
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(10) MARYSVILLE [USC00145063], Marysville, KS
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(11) BEATRICE 1N [USC00250622], Beatrice, NE
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(12) CRETE [USC00252020], Crete, NE
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(13) MEAD 6S [USC00255362], Ithaca, NE
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(14) RAYMOND 2NE [USC00257055], Raymond, NE
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(15) TABLE ROCK 4 N [USC00258410], Table Rock, NE
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(16) CLINTON LAKE [USC00141612], Lawrence, KS
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(17) ASHLAND NO 2 [USC00250375], Ashland, NE
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(18) VIRGINIA [USC00258875], Virginia, NE
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(19) LINCOLN MUNI AP [USW00014939], Lincoln, NE
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(20) LINCOLN UNIV PWR PLT [USW00014971], Lincoln, NE
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(21) LAWRENCE [USC00144559], Lawrence, KS
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(22) OSKALOOSA 4 NE [USC00146100], Mc Louth, KS
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(23) AUBURN 5 ESE [USC00250435], Auburn, NE
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(24) PAWNEE CITY [USC00256570], Pawnee City, NE
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(25) WAHOO [USC00258905], Wahoo, NE
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(26) FALLS CITY BRENNER FLD [USW00094957], Falls City, NE
">Influencing water features
No water features are associated with this site.
Soil features
The soils associated with the Loamy Upland ecological site are located on uplands. Slopes typical range from 0 to 15 percent but may be up to 30 percent. These soils were formed in loess, till, residuum, colluvium, or alluvium. Soils are deep (36 to 60 inches) to very deep (greater than 60 inches) with silt loam, loam, silty clay loam, or clay loam surface textures which are 5 to 20 inches or more thick. Soils are moderately well to somewhat excessively drained. The subsoil and underlying material have a similar range in texture as the surface layer. The subsoil contains less than 45 percent clay and may include sandy sub strata. Soils in this site generally are high in fertility. The potential for water erosion increases as the slope increases.
Rills and gullies are not inherent to this site; if present, head cutting has stabilized, and sides are vegetated. Water flow patterns are absent or irregular and disconnected. Pedestals and terracettes should not be present except on slopes exceeding 20 percent when there may be a slight presence. Soil aggregate stability is high. Plant litter is distributed evenly throughout the site; however, heavy rainfall may move herbaceous and small woody litter short distances as the slope approaches the upper limit for the site. More than 95 percent of the ground is covered by plant canopy, litter, and/or coarse fragments. Following fire, much less litter/canopy the subsequent growing season is to be expected.
The primary soil series correlated to this ecological site include Aksarben, Burchard, Chillicothe, Contrary, Martin, Monona, Morrill, Oska, Pohocco, Sharpsburg, Shelby, Tomek, and Yutan. Additional information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more detail specific to your location or visit Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov).
Figure 9. Sharpsburg series
Table 4. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Loess
(2) Till
(3) Colluvium
(4) Residuum
Surface texture (1) Silty clay loam
(2) Silt loam
(3) Clay loam
(4) Loam
Family particle size (1) Loamy
Drainage class Moderately well drained to somewhat excessively drained Permeability class Very slow to moderate Soil depth 36 – 80 in Surface fragment cover <=3" Not specified Surface fragment cover >3" Not specified Available water capacity
(0-40in)2.9 – 9.1 in Calcium carbonate equivalent
(0-40in)Not specified Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)0 – 2 mmhos/cm Sodium adsorption ratio
(0-40in)Not specified Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-40in)5.6 – 7.8 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 12 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 6 % Ecological dynamics
The Loamy Upland ecological site developed under Central Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, sporadic natural or man caused wildfire, and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short term weather variations, impacts of native and exotic plant and animal species and management actions.
The Loamy Upland site developed with fire as an integral part of the ecological processes. Historically, a given area burned approximately every 3 to 4 years. Distribution was random, but timing generally corresponded to the summer season when convective thunderstorms are most likely to occur. However, it is also believed that pre-European settlement in North America, Indigenous people used fire as a management tool for attracting herds of large migratory herbivores (bison, elk, and/or deer) as well as for warfare. The role of fire over the past 100 years has been relatively insignificant due to the human control of wildfires and general lack of acceptance of prescribed fire as a management tool. In this region where natural precipitation is capable of supporting eastern deciduous forest, much of this site is vulnerable to encroachment by woody species when fire is removed from the system.
Fire historically played a critical role in maintaining the heterogeneity of this system by removing decadent plant material and creating highly palatable new growth. Large herbivores were attracted to the burned areas and created "grazing lawns". These areas were repeatedly grazed until a new burned area reduced grazing pressure leaving the area relatively undisturbed. The heterogeneity of vegetative diversity and structure of the landscape created by the numerous patches in various states of vegetative recovery was essential to maintaining a diverse wildlife population. These conditions created the array of seasonal niches necessary for the various wildlife species to thrive. Grassland birds are one suite of species whose habitat requirements are particularly dependent on the mosaic of vegetative structure created by the pyric herbivory/ungulate interactions. Patch burn grazing is an emerging management concept that attempts to emulate this historic system. The degree of herbivory has significant impacts on ecological processes such as nutrient cycling and sunlight capture. Historically, these sites were highly attractive to herds of large migratory herbivores and grazing patterns and impacts were a primary influence. Secondary influences of herbivory by species such as insects, rodents, and root feeding organisms impacted the vegetation both historically and currently. (Helzer, 2010).
The Reference Community for this site is tall grass prairie occurring on higher, stable landscape positions that generate runoff. Well-developed soils occur on gentler slopes with favorable precipitation capture and retention, while steeper areas will exhibit higher runoff with carbonates remaining near the surface. Under normal weather and soil conditions, sunlight and energy capture are a primary factor limiting plant growth, making this site ideal to support warm season tall grass communities. The vegetation on this site is locally impacted by topography, and the steepness and aspect of the slope interact with the other ecological processes to further influence vegetative dynamics. The north and east facing slopes are usually cooler and wetter, which results in increased vegetative production, but favors invasion by trees and shrubs as well. This often makes these slopes more resistant to restoration of the native grasslands by fire. Specific ignition techniques may be required when conducting a prescribed burn to ensure mortality of invading trees.
One of the primary impacts to this site introduced by European settlement of North America is due to season-long continuous grazing by domestic livestock. This grazing strategy causes the repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of individual grasses. The resulting reduction of the plants ability to harvest sunlight depletes the root reserves, subsequently decreasing the root mass. This negatively impacts the ability of plants to compete for life sustaining nutrients resulting in declining vigor and eventual mortality. Grasses with highly elevated growing points (e.g., big bluestem, Indiangrass, gamagrass) and preferred shrubs are the most susceptible to growing season defoliation and typically the first to decrease under unmanaged grazing. The space created in the vegetative community is then occupied by a species that avoids the negative grazing impacts by a growing season adaptation such as a cool season, shorter structure, or reduced palatability mechanism. Noxious weeds such as leafy spurge, sericea lespedeza, nodding plumeless (musk) thistle, and Canada thistles may take advantage of reduced native cover and vigor; however, the cool-season grasses, smooth brome and tall fescue, pose the greatest invasion threat. Smooth brome is the dominant invader in northern portions of the MLRA while tall fescue is more common in the southern portions.
Whereas herds of native ungulates could move freely across the landscape in response to changing conditions, livestock use is constrained in space and often repeated over time, producing a more homogeneous landscape. The management of herbivory by humans through grazing of domestic livestock and manipulation of wildlife populations has been a major modern influence on the ecological dynamics (USDA/SCS, 1977). Additionally, the favorable growing conditions and topography that historically made this one of the largest contributors to the true prairie habitat type in MLRA 106 have also made it one of the most extensively cropped today leaving a fraction of the prairie intact.
The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted following this section and includes a Reference State (1), a Native/Invaded Grass State (2), and a Sod-busted State (3), and an Invaded Woody State (4). Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The main properties observed to determine this change are the soil, vegetative communities, and the hydrological cycle. The STM illustrates the common plant communities that can occur on the site and the transition pathways between communities (Bestelmeyer, 2010). The ecological processes will be discussed in more detail in the plant community descriptions following the diagram.
Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference State (1) and the Reference Community (1.1) and have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from abusive disturbance, seasonal use pastures, areas under long term rotational grazing practices, and historical accounts.State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
T1A - Repeated defoliation during the warm-season portion of growing season by grazing or haying. T1B - Tillage to facilitate production agriculture. T1C - Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management. R2A - Prescribed grazing with grazing concentrated during spring and fall, late spring prescribed fire, herbicide application in early spring or late fall. T2A - Tillage to facilitate production agriculture. T2B - Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management. T3A - Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management. R4A - Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management R4B - Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management R4C - Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management State 1 submodel, plant communities
1.1A - Continuous, season-long heavy grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate, growing season recovery periods. 1.2A - Prescribed grazing with growing season deferment. State 2 submodel, plant communities
2.1A - Continuous grazing during warm season portion of growing season, haying during mid to late summer, early or excessive nitrogen fertilization. 2.2A - Concentrated grazing during cool-season portion of growing season. State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference StateThe Reference State (1) comprises the communities within the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes. Patterns created by wildlife use and fire supported a mosaic of communities across the landscape. Warm-season tall grasses are dominant and warm-season mid grasses are subdominant. Cool-season grasses, forbs, and shrubs are minor functional/structural groups. Eastern gamagrass is naturally absent to rare in the northern half of the MLRA but becomes increasingly common southward. Conversely, cool-season grasses, such as porcupinegrass and Canada wildrye, are more prominent northward. High perennial grass cover allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality.
Fire and bison herbivory were the dominant disturbance regimes that historically maintained the tall grass dominance with a diverse forb component. Furthermore, bison grazing was closely linked to fire patterns as the animals preferred grazing burned areas offering highly palatable and nutritious regrowth. Thus, historic plant communities were subject to occasional burning and grazing, with substantial rest/recovery periods as the fuel load rebuilt to eventually start this process again. Fires also served to suppress woody species and to maintain an open herbaceous stand. The degree to which current conditions represent this state largely depends upon how closely contemporary management has mimicked these past disturbance effects.
The Reference State (1) includes the Reference Community (1.1) which is dominated by warm-season tall grasses and the At-Risk Community (1.2) which is dominated by warm-season mid grasses.Community 1.1
Reference Community
Figure 10. Loamy Upland Ecological site, Reference Community (1.1). Rockefeller Prairie. Douglas County, KS, MLRA 106.
The Reference Community or the Native Tallgrass Prairie Community (1.1) serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural and functional vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and fire and grazing events.
The potential vegetation consists of approximately 75 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 1 to10 percent shrubs, based upon total annual air-dry weight production. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, little bluestem, porcupinegrass, sideoats grama, and switchgrass are the dominant species making up 70 percent or more of the total annual production. Blue grama, prairie junegrass, Scribner’s rosette grass, composite dropseed and various sedges, shrubs, and forbs are also important plants to the site (Kaul 2006, Steinauer 2010, USDA/NRCS 2012).
This plant community is very stable but there is annual variability of expression of the dominant plant species based on current climate and local disturbances. Late spring fires will stimulate warm season plants while suppressing cool-season grasses and forbs.
The total annual production ranges from 2,975 to 5,400 pounds of air-dry lbs/ac depending on climate, with a representative value of 4,250 lbs/ac.Dominant plant species
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leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
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big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
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Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
Figure 11. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 2605 3612 4430 Shrub/Vine 185 319 505 Forb 185 319 505 Total 2975 4250 5440 Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1068 , MLRA 106 Warm-season. *Warm-season dominant.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 7 18 30 22 12 6 2 0 0 Community 1.2
At-Risk Community
Figure 13. Loamy Upland ecological site, At-Risk Community (1.2), during drought. MLRA 106.
The At-Risk Community (1.2) phase marks a significant reduction in warm-season tall grasses that have decreased due to continued excessive defoliation and/or prolonged drought. Decreased plant litter reduces effective precipitation causing a decline in production compared to the Reference Community (1.1). Reduced efficiencies in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles further impair soil health.
Total average annual production ranges from 3,300 to 4,100 pounds of air-dry lbs/ac with an average of 3,700 lbs/ac.Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1068 , MLRA 106 Warm-season. *Warm-season dominant.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 7 18 30 22 12 6 2 0 0 Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Reference Community
At-Risk CommunityA shift from the Reference Community (1.1) toward the At-Risk Community (1.2) occurs with heavy grazing and inadequate recovery periods. This is often seen under continuous season long grazing in excess of carrying capacity and the resulting multiple defoliations of elevated growing points of the palatable tall grasses. Rotational grazing with inadequate, growing season recovery periods will also reduce the productivity of the warm-season tall grasses. Prolonged drought (greater than two years) may also shift the plant community towards species with higher drought tolerance.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
At-Risk Community
Reference CommunityA shift from the A-Risk Community (1.2) toward the Reference Community (1.1) is achieved by removing or mitigating the stressors, whether they are grazing related or climatic conditions. Prescribed grazing which includes deferment of grazing until late summer following the peak growth period of warm-season species or other grazing strategies focusing on the health and vigor of warm-season tall grasses will allow them to reclaim stand dominance. Following prolonged drought, reduced stocking rates or growing season deferment periods will alleviate the impact of inadequate soil moisture.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing State 2
Native/Invaded Grass StateThe Native/Invaded Grass State (2) exhibits a co-dominance of both native and introduced species. Native, warm-season, tall grasses such as big bluestem and Indiangrass, may be present as a minor or trace functional group. The plant community consists of the more grazing tolerant native species and a significant component of introduced, cool-season grasses such as smooth brome, tall fescue, and Kentucky bluegrass. Forb diversity is limited to less palatable species such as ironweed and western ragweed. Plant diversity is low.
Impaired energy capture and altered hydrologic function are reflected in reduced vegetative productivity, shallower rooting depth and degraded soil quality. Continuous and heavy grazing pressure will maintain this plant community in a sod bound condition. Grazing management practices that allow for adequate periods of recovery between grazing events and grazing timed early and late during the growing season will reduce the vigor of the non-native, cool-season grasses and may allow the warm-season, tall and mid grasses to increase in abundance and productivity. Return to the Reference State (1) is unlikely due to the loss of plant diversity, overall soil disturbance, and alterations to hydrologic function.
The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) includes the Native/Non-Native Grass Community (2.1) and the Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community (2.2).Community 2.1
Native/Non-Native Grass Community
Figure 15. Loamy Upland ecological site, Native/Non-Native Grass Community (2.1) with native grasses and smooth brome co-dominant. Martin Prairie, Lancaster County, NE, MLRA 106.
The Native/Non-Native Grass Community (2.1) represents a shift from the Reference State (1) across a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2). With continued heavy, continuous grazing, little bluestem and cool season introduced grasses increase. Smooth brome is the dominant invader in the northern half of the MLRA while tall fescue is common in the southern portion. Kentucky bluegrass may be subdominant throughout. Native, cool-season grasses may be a significant part of the plant community. Continuous heavy grazing pressure will convert this plant community to a sod bound condition. Forb richness and diversity will decrease as well.
Total annual production ranges from 2,100 and 3,100 pounds of air-dry herbage per acre per year, with a representative value of 2,600 pounds per acre.Dominant plant species
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
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tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1069 , MLRA 106 Warm/cool-season mix.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 1 4 10 23 26 17 8 6 4 1 0 Community 2.2
Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community
Figure 17. Loamy Upland ecological site. Non-Native Grass Community (2.2) dominated by smooth brome in MLRA 106.
Figure 18. Loamy Upland ecological site. Non-Native Grass Community (2.2) dominated by tall fescue in MLRA 106.
The Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community (2.2) is dominated by introduced cool-season grasses. Smooth brome or tall fescue are the primary introduced grasses present in the plant community and Kentucky bluegrass may also have a significant presence. Native warm-season grass remnants may be present. Native cool-season grasses may be a minor component of the community. Smooth brome primarily occurs throughout the northern half of the MLRA while tall fescue is common in the southern portion.
Vegetative production from smooth brome and tall fescue dominated communities can be highly variable depending on the species composition and external inputs such as fertilizer and weed control. In a normal year, biomass produced can range from 2,500 to 3,000 pounds per acre with a representative value of 2,750 on rangelands where smooth brome and tall fescue are 75 percent of the plant community composition.Dominant plant species
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
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tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Figure 19. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1063 , MLRA 106 Cool-season dominant. *75%+ brome/fescue/bluegrass composition.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 1 7 16 28 21 8 5 7 5 2 0 Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2
Native/Non-Native Grass Community
Introduced Cool-Season Grass CommunityContinuation of the stressors which facilitated the transition to the Native/Invaded State (2) facilitate further expansion and dominance of nonnative, cool-season grasses. Site structure and function largely resemble a seeded pasture monoculture, although scattered natives may still be found. Introduced grass seeding, continuous warm season grazing, mid to late summer haying, or untimely and/or excessive fertilization will increase nonnative cool-season species.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1
Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community
Native/Non-Native Grass CommunityPrescribed grazing which concentrates grazing pressure during active growth period of the cool season grasses while providing deferment during the warm season portion of the growing season will promote a shift from the Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community (2.1) to the Native/Non-native Grass Community (2.1). Prescribed fire used in conjunction with a cool season grazing program will accelerate the process. In the presence of a viable native seedbank, nonselective herbicides applied in the early spring and late fall when invaders are actively growing can be beneficial. Established stands of the cool season invaders may require complete renovation through chemical treatment followed by reseeding of the native vegetation. Once the warm season community is reestablished, ongoing prescribed grazing and fire management with adequate recovery during the summer months is critical.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing State 3
Sod-busted StateThe threshold to the Sod-busted State (3) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. Extensive areas of this ecological site were plowed and converted to crop production by early European settlers and their subsequent generations. In addition to permanently altering the existing vegetative community, repeated tillage negatively impacted soil properties. Reductions in organic matter, mineral levels, soil structure, oxygen levels, and water holding capacity along with increased runoff and erosion as well as shifts in the populations of soil dwelling organisms were common on these sites. The extent of these changes depended upon the duration of cropping as well as crops grown and other management practices.
If farming operations are suspended, the site can be abandoned or seeded to permanent vegetation. Seedings are either a tame pasture forage mixture, the Seeded Pasture Community (3.2), or a mixture of native grasses and forbs, the Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1). Abandonment results in the Natural Reclamation Community (3.3). Permanent alterations of the soil, plant community, and the hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible.Community 3.1
Reseeded Native Grass CommunityThe Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1) does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, fertility management, and past grazing management. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will be required to maintain productivity and desirable species.
Native range and grasslands seeded to native species are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, grass species seeded, and the extent to which soils and hydrologic function have been impacted by the previous farming operations.Community 3.2
Seeded Pasture CommunityThe Seeded Pasture Community (3.2) does not contain native remnants and varies considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment.
There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, grass species seeded, and the extent to which soils and hydrologic function have been impacted by the previous farming operations. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production.Community 3.3
Natural Reclamation CommunityThe Natural Reclamation Community (3.3) consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plow pan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a concern.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community, the extent to which soils and hydrologic function have been impacted by the previous farming operations, and any management applied to the system.State 4
Invaded Woody StateThe Invaded Woody State (4) is the result of woody encroachment. Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet, the threshold is crossed. Woody species are encroaching due to lack of prescribed fire and other brush management practices. Bur oak, eastern red cedar, Osage orange, roughleaf dogwood, honey locust, and coralberry are some of the first woody species to increase. Although these woody species are native to North America, they were not historically a significant part of the Reference State (1). If allowed to continue with little or no disturbance, eastern red cedar, oaks, and elm trees eventually dominate the site. As the overstory closes, various processes act to increase woody dominance. Foliage from woody species shades the understory and intercepts rainfall increasing evaporative loss. Litter acts similarly and further reduces effective precipitation while also creating a less uniform resource distribution with nutrients concentrated under individual trees. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, degraded forage productivity, and reduced soil quality. This state consists of the Invaded Woody Community (4.1).
Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move this state toward a grass dominated state. If the Invaded Woody State (4) transitioned from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) the land cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function had been too severely impacted prior to the woody encroachment to allow restoration to the Reference State.Dominant plant species
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eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
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bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), tree
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honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), tree
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
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tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Community 4.1
Invaded Woody Community
Figure 20. Loamy Upland ecological site after burning to restore grassland. Pawnee Lake State Recreation Area, Lancaster County, NE, MLRA 106.
Figure 21. Loamy Upland ecological site after prescribed burn with smooth brome understory. Shawnee State Fishing Lake, Shawnee County, KS, MLRA 106.
The Invaded Woody Community has at least 15 percent canopy cover consisting of trees generally 5 feet or taller. Bur oak, honeylocust, smooth sumac, and roughleaf dogwood are some of the deciduous invaders, while eastern redcedar is the primary evergreen encroacher. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern redcedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern redcedar can eventually dominate the site resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production and which has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat. Due to fire suppression over many years, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of conifer species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a conifer overstory.
Eastern red cedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.loesscanyonsburngroup.com).
Re-sprouting brush must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required .This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase in relation to most of the plant communities from which this plant community originated. The water cycle is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is typically increased because of a lack of herbaceous cover and the rooting structure provided by the herbaceous species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.Dominant plant species
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eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
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bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), tree
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honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), tree
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roughleaf dogwood (Cornus drummondii), shrub
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smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
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tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2Repeated defoliation of preferred native, warm-season, tall and mid grasses during periods of active growth reduces individual plant vigor and competitiveness. This facilitates an increase by native and nonnative, cool-season species. As warm-season grasses such as big bluestem, Indiangrass, and little bluestem decrease, cool season invaders such as smooth brome and/or tall fescue, colonize and expand. The native forb and shrub component is also affected by the season and degree of livestock pressure. In response to repeated defoliation, this community will shift to less palatable, more grazing tolerant species that includes nonnative invaders. Repeated growing season haying causes a similar species composition shift in the reference plant communities.
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3The Reference State (1) is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system, make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T1C
State 1 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Reference State (1) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1To restore the Native/Invaded State (2) to the Reference State (1) requires a concerted management effort employing a combination of management tools focused on reduction of the undesirable components of the community and increasing the desired components. Spring/fall grazing with summer deferment, late spring/early summer prescribed fires, and nonselective herbicides applied in the early spring and late fall allow warm season grasses to complete seed setting and rebuild carbohydrate reserves, while reducing these same processes on the cool season species. These tools are the most effective when used in combination. Successful restoration is dependent upon the presence of adequate warm-season tall and mid grass remnants and intact soil and site stability and hydrologic function. If soils have significantly eroded or if the hydrology has been significantly degraded this restoration will not be possible.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Transition T2A
State 2 to 3The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T2B
State 2 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Native/Invaded State (2) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Transition T3A
State 3 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Sod-busted State (3) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Reference State (1). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Native/Invaded State (2). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Sod-busted State (3). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Additional community tables
Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Warm-Season Tallgrass 1700–2550 big bluestem ANGE Andropogon gerardii 1275–1700 – Indiangrass SONU2 Sorghastrum nutans 213–638 – eastern gamagrass TRDA3 Tripsacum dactyloides 0–425 – switchgrass PAVI2 Panicum virgatum 213–425 – Grass, perennial 2GP Grass, perennial 0–85 – 2 Warm-Season Midgrass 850–1275 little bluestem SCSC Schizachyrium scoparium 637–1275 – sideoats grama BOCU Bouteloua curtipendula 213–425 – purple lovegrass ERSP Eragrostis spectabilis 0–213 – composite dropseed SPCO16 Sporobolus compositus 0–213 – plains muhly MUCU3 Muhlenbergia cuspidata 0–128 – Grass, perennial 2GP Grass, perennial 0–85 – 3 Warm-Season Shortgrass 43–213 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 0–213 – hairy grama BOHI2 Bouteloua hirsuta 0–213 – buffalograss BODA2 Bouteloua dactyloides 0–85 – Grass, perennial 2GP Grass, perennial 0–85 – 4 Cool-Season Grass 213–638 porcupinegrass HESP11 Hesperostipa spartea 127–425 – western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 0–213 – prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 43–128 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 43–128 – fall rosette grass DIWI5 Dichanthelium wilcoxianum 0–128 – Canada wildrye ELCA4 Elymus canadensis 0–128 – Virginia wildrye ELVI3 Elymus virginicus 0–128 – Grass, perennial 2GP Grass, perennial 0–85 – 5 Grasslike 43–425 sedge CAREX Carex 43–425 – heavy sedge CAGR4 Carex gravida 0–213 – sun sedge CAINH2 Carex inops ssp. heliophila 0–213 – Mead's sedge CAME2 Carex meadii 0–213 – Forb6 Forbs 213–425 Missouri goldenrod SOMI2 Solidago missouriensis 0–128 – stiff goldenrod OLRI Oligoneuron rigidum 0–128 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 0–128 – false boneset BREU Brickellia eupatorioides 0–85 – white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 0–85 – purple prairie clover DAPU5 Dalea purpurea 0–85 – Maximilian sunflower HEMA2 Helianthus maximiliani 0–85 – stiff sunflower HEPA19 Helianthus pauciflorus 0–85 – white heath aster SYER Symphyotrichum ericoides 0–85 – compassplant SILA3 Silphium laciniatum 0–85 – hoary verbena VEST Verbena stricta 0–85 – western yarrow ACMIO Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis 0–43 – aromatic aster SYOB Symphyotrichum oblongifolium 0–43 – longbract spiderwort TRBR Tradescantia bracteata 0–43 – prairie groundsel PAPL12 Packera plattensis 0–43 – silverleaf Indian breadroot PEAR6 Pediomelum argophyllum 0–43 – cobaea beardtongue PECO4 Penstemon cobaea 0–43 – large Indian breadroot PEES Pediomelum esculentum 0–43 – slimflower scurfpea PSTE5 Psoralidium tenuiflorum 0–43 – upright prairie coneflower RACO3 Ratibida columnifera 0–43 – fringeleaf wild petunia RUHU Ruellia humilis 0–43 – azure blue sage SAAZ Salvia azurea 0–43 – prairie blue-eyed grass SICA9 Sisyrinchium campestre 0–43 – roundhead lespedeza LECA8 Lespedeza capitata 0–43 – tall blazing star LIAS Liatris aspera 0–43 – dotted blazing star LIPU Liatris punctata 0–43 – Nuttall's sensitive-briar MINU6 Mimosa nuttallii 0–43 – evening primrose OENOT Oenothera 0–43 – Carolina larkspur DECAV2 Delphinium carolinianum ssp. virescens 0–43 – Illinois ticktrefoil DEIL2 Desmodium illinoense 0–43 – blacksamson echinacea ECAN2 Echinacea angustifolia 0–43 – button eryngo ERYU Eryngium yuccifolium 0–43 – groundplum milkvetch ASCR2 Astragalus crassicarpus 0–43 – butterfly milkweed ASTU Asclepias tuberosa 0–43 – whorled milkweed ASVE Asclepias verticillata 0–43 – longbract wild indigo BABR2 Baptisia bracteata 0–43 – white prairie clover DACA7 Dalea candida 0–43 – field pussytoes ANNE Antennaria neglecta 0–43 – Forb, native 2FN Forb, native – – Shrub/Vine7 Shrubs 43–425 leadplant AMCA6 Amorpha canescens 43–213 – coralberry SYOR Symphoricarpos orbiculatus 0–85 – Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) 0–85 – Jersey tea CEHE Ceanothus herbaceus 0–43 – smooth sumac RHGL Rhus glabra 0–43 – prairie rose ROAR3 Rosa arkansana 0–43 – western snowberry SYOC Symphoricarpos occidentalis 0–43 – Table 7. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 8. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 9. Community 2.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 10. Community 3.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 11. Community 3.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 12. Community 3.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 13. Community 4.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Animal community
LIVESTOCK – GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage may be lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep) requirements. The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season long grazing under normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.
Production and Carrying Capacity*
Community 1.1, Reference Community: 4,250 lbs/acre, 1.16 AUM/acre
*Based on the following conditions: continuous season long grazing with cattle under average growing conditions, 25 percent harvest efficiency. Air dry forage requirements are based on 3 percent of animal body weight or 790 lbs per animal unit (AU) per month (M). An AU is generally one mature cow of approximately 1,000 pounds and a calf as old as 6 months or their equivalent.
WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 106 lies primarily within the tall grass prairie ecosystem. Prior to European settlement of North America, this area consisted of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional wetlands and limited woody riparian corridors. These habitats provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn that historically occupied this landscape. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects provided a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrived in this landscape.
The tall grass prairie was a disturbance driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement of North America, elimination of fire, widespread conversion to cropland, and other sources of habitat fragmentation significantly altered the appearance and functionality of the entire ecosystem. The reduced stability of the system is reflected by major changes in the composition and abundance of the native flora and fauna. Introduced and invading species further degrade the ecological integrity of the plant and animal communities. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free roaming bison herds and nearly all prairie dogs have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats they provide.
Historically, an ecological mosaic of the sites provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands. Important habitat features and components found commonly or exclusively on modern day remnants include upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds; nesting and escape cover for waterfowl; forbs and insects for brood rearing habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores. Fragmentation has reduced habitat quality for numerous area sensitive species, as highlighted by the decline of the greater prairie chicken. Many grassland nesting bird populations such as dickcissel and Henslow's sparrow are also declining. In this fragmented landscape, native grassland bird populations face increasing competition from the opportunistic European starlings and house sparrows and are subject to nest parasitism from brown headed cowbirds. Tree encroachment creates habitat that favors generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove, and provides perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality. Introduced species such as smooth bromegrass, reed canarygrass, Kentucky bluegrass, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), and Canada thistle further degrade the biological integrity of many of these remnant prairies.
1. REFERENCE STATE: The predominance of tall grasses and forbs in this state makes it ideal for grazers and mixed feeders. Pollinating insects play a significant role in maintaining the forb community and provide a food source for birds and other grassland dependent species. The vegetative structural diversity provides habitat for reptiles, amphibians, and a wide array of native and introduced bird species. The abundant prey base supports populations of Swainson’s hawk, short eared and great horned owls, and other raptors. The grasses, forbs, and shrubs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including moles, mice, ground squirrels, and whitetail deer. The structure of this plant community provides suitable thermal, protective, and escape cover for small herbivores and birds. Many wide-ranging predators utilize this plant community, including coyote, badger, red fox, and least and long tailed weasels. As the plant community degrades to more mid grasses and fewer tall grasses, less winter and escape cover are provided.Hydrological functions
This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic groups B and C. Permeability is slow to moderate. Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. Shrub invasion, particularly by eastern red cedar, greatly exacerbates this issue. Control of invasive shrubs by prescribed fire and mechanical means are important tools in maintaining the site as a grassland.
The historic and other native tall grass and shrub vegetation of the Reference State (1) that occur on this site lose little rainfall to runoff unless the site is saturated. However, as this site shifts towards the Native/Invaded State (2) or the Invaded Woody State (4) both of which have reduced litter and canopy cover, the amount of rainfall lost to runoff increases significantly. Some studies have shown that a community of mixed native grasses and smooth brome similar to that present in the Native/Non-Native Community (2.1) can lose up to 50 percent of the rainfall to runoff (USDA/ARS, 2013).
This site does not show evidence of rills, deposition of soil, or erosion in water flow patterns. Drainages are vegetated and stable. This holds true for all states that have not been farmed.
Plants are not pedestalled on this site, but there may be terracettes of litter observed in the Native/Invaded State (2) due to increased runoff.Recreational uses
This site provides hunting for upland game species along with hiking, photography, bird watching and other opportunities. The wide varieties of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wildflowers are abundant on this site. The most visible wildflowers change from year to year due to the variability among the growing seasons. Because of this variety of wildflowers and grasses, numerous individuals tour and collect plant materials from this site for dried floral arrangements.Wood products
Although several tree species invade this site, they usually do not reach sufficient size to produce wood products except for firewood.
Other products
The deep productive nature of the soils correlated to this site make it attractive for a variety of other land uses. When in large blocks on flatter slopes, they are preferred cropland soils. Introduced pasture plants do well on these soils.
Other information
This is an Approved ESD and has had the appropriate levels of Quality Control and Quality Assurance performed.
Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from RANGE-417 archives, Rangeland NRI, and other inventory data. Field observations from range trained personnel were also used. In addition to the multitude of NRCS field office employees and private landowners that helped with site visits and local knowledge, those involved in developing this site include: Nebraska NRCS Nadine Bishop, State Rangeland Management Specialist Dan Shurtliff, Asst State Soil Scientist Sam Cowan, Soil Conservationist Kansas NRCS David Kraft, State Rangeland Management Specialist Tim Miller, Area Rangeland Management Specialist Dwayne Rice, Area Rangeland Management Specialist MLRA Office 5 Stu McFarland, Ecological Site Inventory Specialist, QC Mark Moseley, Ecological Site Inventory Specialist, QA Chris Tecklenburg, Ecological Site Inventory Specialist, QC John Warner, Soil Data Quality Specialist Bruce Evans, 5-LIN MSSO Project Leader National Soil Survey Center Mike Kucera, National Agronomist, Soil Quality & Ecosystems Steve Peaslee, GIS Specialist, Soil Survey Interpretations Nebraska Game & Parks Commission Gerry Steinauer, Botanist Nebraska Forest Service Steve Karloff, District Forester Dennis Adams, Program Leader University of Nebraska – Lincoln Extension Bruce Anderson, Forage Specialist
Type locality
Location 1: Douglas County, KS Township/Range/Section T11S R20E S33 General legal description Rockefeller Prairie, University of Kansas Field Station. Other references
Fenneman, Nevin M. 1916. Physiographic Subdivision of the United States. Annals of the
Association of American Geographers.
Helzer, Chris. 2010. The Ecology and Management of Prairies in the Central U.S. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press/The Nature Conservancy.
Kaul, Robert B., David Sutherland, and Steven Rolfsmeier. 2006. The Flora of Nebraska. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska – Lincoln (Conservation and Survey Division, School of Natural Resources.)
Multiple authors. 2010. Rangelands: Ecological Sites (Special Issue) pp 2-64. Wheat Ridge, CO: Society for Range Management.
NOA/UNL – High Plains Regional Climate Center. Historical Data Summaries:
http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/data/historical/
Steinauer, Gerry and Steve Rolfsmeier. 2010. Terrestrial Ecological Systems and Natural Communities of Nebraska. Lincoln, NE: Nebraska Natural Heritage Program and Nebraska Game and Parks Commission.
USDA/ARS/SWRC. 2013. Dynamic Rangeland Hydrology and Erosion Model Tool (DRHEM), Version 2.0. http://apps.tucson.ars.ag.gov/drhem/
USDA/USFS. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections for the Conterminous United States. Washington, DC: USDA - Forest Service.
USDA/SCS. 1977. Rangeland Resources of Nebraska. Lincoln, NE: Society for Range Management. USDA/NRCS. 2011. ESD User Guide. Fort Worth, TX: Central National Technology Support Center.
USDA/NRCS. 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook. Fort Worth, TX: Grazing Lands
Technical Institute.
USDA/NRCS. 2012a. Field Office Technical Guide (Nebraska, Natural Resources Information, Statewide Soil and Site Information, Rangeland Interpretations, Nebraska Range Site Descriptions – Vegetative Zone 4), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Nebraska Ecological Sciences.
USDA/NRCS. 2012b. Field Office Technical Guide (Kansas, Natural Resources Information, Ecological Site Descriptions, Range Sites), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Nebraska Ecological Sciences.
USDA/NRCS 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296.Contributors
Doug Whisenhunt
Stu McFarland
Nadine BishopApproval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 6/09/2025
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Original Authors: Stu McFarland and Doug Whisenhunt Version V Authors: Anna Ferguson, Aaron Hird, Justin Linder, Dusty Schwandt, Doug Spencer, Chris Tecklenburg, Nadine Bishop, Jeff Nichols Contact for lead author jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov Date 11/30/2024 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
Typically, none. Water flow patterns are not expected on this site except on slopes exceeding 15 percent. When present, water flow patterns will be rare, short (6 to 12 inches or 15 to 30 cm) and disrupted by perennial vegetation. -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None. Pedestals and terracettes are not expected to occur on this site. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is 5 percent or less. Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), litter, standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae). -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. Wind scoured and/or depositional areas are not expected on this site. -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Typically, none. Litter movement is not expected on this site except on slopes exceeding 15 percent and due to high intensity storms. In this case, fine litter movement will be short distances of 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm) and be associated with water flow patterns. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability ratings will be 5 to 6, typically 6. High root content and organic matter will be present in the soil surface. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
The surface horizon (A) typically ranges from 6 to 16 inches thick but may be thicker. Soil colors in the surface horizon are typically very dark grayish brown, very dark brown, dark grayish brown or black (hue: 10YR, value: 2 to 4, chroma: 1 or 2) when moist and dark gray, dark grayish brown, grayish brown, or brown (hue: 10YR, value: 4 or 5, chroma: 1 to 3) when dry. Soil structure ranges from medium fine granular, medium fine granular parting to weak fine granular, medium fine granular parting to medium moderate granular, medium fine subangular blocky, medium fine subangular blocky parting to medium fine granular, weak fine granular, weak fine subangular blocky, weak fine subangular blocky parting to fine granular, or weak medium granular. See Official Soils Descriptions (OSD) for additional details. The primary soils correlated to the Loamy Upland ecological site include Aksarben, Burchard, Chillicothe, Contrary, Martin, Monona, Oska, Sharpsburg, Shelby, Tomek, and Yutan. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Plant community composition of 75 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 0 to 10 percent shrubs, will optimize infiltration on the site. The grass and grass-like portion is composed of native, warm-season, tall grasses (40-60%), native, warm-season, mid grasses (20-30%), native, cool-season grasses (5-15%), native, warm-season, short grasses (1-5%), and grass-likes (1-10%). Infiltration can be adversely impacted by the invasion of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, tall fescue, and trees when present above10 percent (subdominant designation). -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. No compaction layers are expected for this site. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Phase 1.1: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass, 1700-2550 #/ac, 40-60% (3 species minimum): big bluestem, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, switchgrass. 2. Native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass, 850-1275 #/ac, 20-30% (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sideoats grama, purple lovegrass, composite dropseed, plains muhly. Phase 1.2: 1. Native, perennial, warm season, mid grass (3 species minimum): little bluestem, sideoats grama, purple lovegrass, composite dropseed, plains muhly.Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.1: 1. Native, perennial, cool-season grass, 213-638 #/ac, 5-15% (2 species minimum): porcupinegrass, western wheatgrass, prairie junegrass, Scribner's rosette grass, fall rosette grass, Canada wildrye, Virginia wildrye. Phase 1.2: 1. Native, perennial, cool-season grass (2 species minimum): porcupinegrass, western wheatgrass, prairie junegrass, Scribner's rosette grass, fall rosette grass, Canada wildrye, Virginia wildrye. 2. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass (2 species minimum): blue grama, hairy grama, buffalograss.Other:
Minor - Phase 1.1: 1. Native forbs, 213-425 #/ac, 5-10%: forbs present vary from location to location. 2. Grass-likes, 43-425 #/ac, 1-10%: heavy sedge, sun sedge, Mead's sedge. 3. Shrubs, 43-425, 1-10%: Shrubs present vary from location to location. 4. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass, 213-638#/ac (1-5%): blue grama, hairy grama, buffalograss. Minor - Phase 1.2: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season tallgrass: big bluestem, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, switchgrass. 2. Forbs: forbs present vary from location to location. 3. Shrubs: shrubs present vary from location to location. 4. Grass-likes: heavy sedge, Mead's sedge, sun sedge. 5. Non-native, cool-season grasses: smooth brome, tall fescue, Kentucky bluegrass.Additional:
The Reference Community (1.1) includes seven F/S groups. These groups in order of abundance are native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; native forbs; grass-likes; shrubs; native, perennial, warm-season, short grass. The At-Risk Community (1.2) includes eight F/S groups. These groups in order of abundance are native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; native, perennial, warm-season, short grass; native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; native forbs; grass-likes; shrubs; non-native cool-season grass. -
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Bunch grasses have strong, healthy centers with few (less than 3 percent) dead centers. Shrubs may show some dead branches (less than 5 percent) as plants age. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter is expected to be 70 to 80 percent cover, at a depth of approximately 0.5 inch (1.25 cm) and evenly distributed throughout the site. Kentucky bluegrass is known to produce excessive litter accumulations that negatively impact site functionality. -
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Production is shown in air-dry values. Representative Value (RV) = 4,250 pounds per acre. Low production years = 2,975 pounds per acre. High production years = 5,440 pounds per acre. -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
No nonnative invasive species are present. Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, Caucasian bluestem, tall fescue, eastern red cedar, honey locust, roughleaf dogwood, Siberian elm, Osage orange, leafy spurge, and sericea lespedeza are known invasives that have the potential to be dominant or co-dominant on the site. Consult the state noxious weed and state watch lists for potential invasive species on each ecological site. NOTE: Invasive plants (for the purposes of the IIRH protocol) are plant species that are typically not found on the ecological site or should only be in trace or minor categories under the natural disturbance regime and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the site if their establishment and growth are not actively controlled by natural disturbances or management interventions. Species listed characterize degraded states AND have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species. -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to climatic conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.
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