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Approved. An approved ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model, enough information to identify the ecological site, and full documentation for all ecosystem states contained in the state and transition model.
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Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 106X–Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills
Named the “Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills,” Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 106 is divided almost evenly between southeastern Nebraska (52%), and northeastern Kansas, (48%). The approximately seven-million-acre landscape covers all or parts of thirty counties between the two states. The northern border is located on the north end of Saunders County, Nebraska, and the MLRA extends into Douglas County, Kansas in the south. The Nebraska cities of Beatrice and Lincoln are the major population centers in the north, while Topeka and Lawrence in Kansas are the primary cities in the south. The Platte, Little Nemaha, and the North Fork of the Big Nemaha Rivers flow through the Nebraska side of the MLRA, while the Black Vermillion, the Soldier, and the Delaware Rivers are the major waterways on the Kansas side. The Big Blue River runs through both states, while the Salt Creek hydrologic system located near Lincoln, Nebraska provides habitat for the only known population of the Federally listed endangered Salt Creek Tiger Beetle.
This dissected glacial drift plain primarily consists of broad, smooth ridgetops, and slopes ranging from nearly level to steep. The elevation in MLRA 106 decreases from west to east, and ranges from nearly 1,650 feet to less than 790 feet above sea level. Stream valleys in this landscape are narrow and bordered by steep hills, with 10 to 20 feet of local relief. The river valleys are broader and may drop up to over 160 feet below the adjacent hilltops. The uplands are primarily comprised of glacial drift underlying a mantle of loess, while alluvial deposits are found in the stream and river valleys. Limestone and shale quarries are also located in MLRA 106. The predominant soil orders in this MLRA are mesic, udic, Mollisols, Alfisols, and Entisols. Loams and clays are the primary soil textures in this landscape.
Sixty-two percent of the land in this MLRA has been broken out of native prairie and farmed, while only 23 percent of the grasslands remain. Livestock grazing, primarily by cattle, is the main industry on these remnants. Corn, wheat, soybeans, and grain sorghum are the primary commodity crops, but a significant number of acres are also planted to alfalfa for harvest as hay. With annual precipitation averaging from 40 inches in the southeast, to 28 inches in the northwest, irrigation for crop production is not a critical factor in most years.
The historical matrix vegetation type is Tallgrass Prairie, and big and little bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, sideoats, and blue grama make up the bulk of the warm-season species. Historically, western wheatgrass was the dominant cool-season grass but today the dominant cool-season grasses are introduced grasses, smooth brome in the north and tall fescue in the south. Large and small patch vegetative communities are found primarily along the riparian zones, and on both upland and lowland saline sites. Woodlands make up about six percent of MLRA 106, consisting primarily of green ash, oak, hackberry, boxelder, and maple trees.
Wildlife flourishes in this combination of crop and grassland environments. In a landscape historically occupied by bison herds, white-tailed deer are now the most abundant wild ungulates. A variety of smaller species, including coyote, raccoon, opossum, porcupines, muskrat, beaver, squirrel, and mink thrive in the region. Native grassland bird populations are limited by the lack of contiguous native prairie and the fragmented habitat created by the farmland. The rivers, streams, and lakes harbor excellent fisheries, and migrating and local waterfowl use the wetland complexes. These complexes provide ideal habitat for wading and shore bird species as well.
This landscape serves as a backdrop for a disturbance driven ecosystem, evolving under the influences of herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Historically, these processes created a heterogeneous mosaic of plant communities and structure heights across the region. Any given site in this landscape experienced fire every three to four years. Fires were caused by lightning strikes and also were set by Native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. The Indigenous inhabitants understood the value of fire as a tool and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing game animals such as bison and elk.
Land use patterns by post European settlers have fragmented the native grasslands through conversion to cropland, transportation corridors, and other developments. This has significantly altered the natural fire regime allowing encroachment by native and introduced shrubs and trees into the native prairie remnants throughout the MLRA. Aggressive fire suppression policies have exacerbated this process to the point that shrub and tree encroachment is a major ecological threat in the majority of both native and reseeded grasslands. Introduction of eastern red cedar as a windbreak species further facilitates invasion by this species. While eastern red cedar is native to the landscape, the historic population in MLRA 106 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainageways that were protected from fire. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern red cedar as a primary component have provided a seed source for the aggressive woody plant. The ensuing encroachment into the native grasslands degrades the native wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock. Since it is not a root sprouter, eastern red cedar is very susceptible to fire when under six feet tall. Management with prescribed fire is exceedingly effective if applied before this stage. Larger eastern red cedars can also be controlled with fire, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques.Classification relationships
►USDA-NRCS (2022)◄
Land Resource Region – M, Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) – 106
►Fenneman (1916) Physiographic Regions ◄
Division – Interior Plains
Province – Central Lowland
Section – Dissected Till Plains
►USDA-USFS (2007) Ecoregions◄
Domain – Humid Temperate
Division – Prairie
Province – Prairie Parkland (Temperate)
Section – Central Dissected Till Plains (251C)
►EPA Ecoregions (Omernik 1997)◄
I – Great Plains (9)
II – Temperate Prairies (9.2)
III – Western Corn Belt Plains (9.2.3)
IV – Loess and Glacial Drift Hills (47i)
►Associated Counties◄
Nebraska: Butler, Cass, Gage, Jefferson, Johnson, Lancaster, Nemaha, Otoe, Pawnee, Richardson, Saline, Saunders, Seward
Kansas: Atchison, Brown, Doniphan, Douglas, Franklin, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Leavenworth, Marshall, Nemaha, Osage, Pottawatomie, Shawnee, Wabaunsee, Washington, WyandotteEcological site concept
The Clayey Upland ecological site primarily occurs on upland landscapes and does not receive additional moisture from runoff or overflow, but it also occurs in depressions on stream terraces in valleys. The typical slope range is from 0 to 25 percent but may be as steep as 25 percent. Soils are deep (36 to 60 inches) to very deep (greater than 60 inches) with surface textures that are predominately clay loam, clay, silty clay, and silty clay loam which are 6 to 17 inches thick. Soils contain more than 35 percent clay content in the surface horizons. Vegetation in the Reference Community (1.1) is dominated by warm-season tall grasses with a significant presence of warm-season mid grass and cool-season grasses. Dominant grasses include big bluestem, Indiangrass, and little bluestem. Porcupinegrass, sideoats grama, and switchgrass is also significant in the plant community. Forbs are common and diverse. This site is susceptible to invasion of non-native cool-season grasses, especially smooth brome and tall fescue. A significant portion of this site has been converted to production agriculture and the predominant crops are corn and soybeans.
Associated sites
R106XY070NE Loamy Terrace
The Loamy Terrace ecological site is often adjacent to and on lower landscape positions than the Clayey Upland ecological site.
R106XY075NE Loamy Upland
The Loamy Upland ecological site and the Clayey Upland ecological site occur on similar landscape positions and are often intermixed. Loamy Upland sites typically contain less than 35 percent clay while Clayey Upland typically contain more than 35 percent clay in the surface horizons.
R106XY077NE Shallow Limy
The Shallow Limy ecological site is often found associated with Clayey Upland ecological site but the Shallow Limy site occurs on steeper areas or narrow summits with soil depths of 20 inches or less while Clayey Upland sites have soil depths of 36 inches or greater.
Similar sites
R106XY025NE Savannah
The Savannah and Clayey Upland ecological sites are found on similar upland landscapes. Both sites occur on locations with deep soils . Savannah sites are found on sandy and loamy soils while Clayey Upland sites are found on soils with greater than 35 percent clay.
R106XY075NE Loamy Upland
The Loamy Upland and Clayey Upland ecological sites are found on similar upland landscapes. Both sites occur on locations with deep to very deep soils and the plant communities are similar in composition. Loamy Upland is a more productive site and the soils contain an average clay content of less than 35 percent in the A horizon.
R106XY076NE Limy Upland
The Limy Upland and Clayey Upland ecological sites are found on similar upland landscapes. Both sites occur on locations with deep to very deep soils . Limy Upland sites contain are calcareous at or near the soil surface while Clayey Upland sites are non-calcareous.
Figure 1. Block Diagram for the Clay Upland ecological site in MLRA 106.
Table 2. Dominant plant species
Tree Not specified
Shrub (1) Amorpha canescens
(2) Symphoricarpos orbiculatusHerbaceous (1) Andropogon gerardii
(2) Sorghastrum nutansPhysiographic features
The Clayey Upland ecological site typically occurs on nearly level to steep slopes on uplands. It is also found in depressions on stream terraces in valleys. While the percent slope of the soil series associated with this site ranges from 0 to 25 percent, the majority of these sites are situated on slopes of 15 percent or less. A perched water table is present in most of these soils in the spring at a depth of 12 to 36 inches. The site is not considered hydric.
Table 3. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) Upland > Hillslope
(2) Upland > Divide
(3) Valley > Depression
Runoff class Low to very high Flooding frequency None Ponding frequency None Elevation 650 – 1800 ft Slope 0 – 25 % Water table depth 12 – 36 in Aspect Aspect is not a significant factor Climatic features
Like most Great Plains landscapes, the climate in this MLRA is under the sway of the continental effect. This creates a regime of extremes, with summer highs often in the triple digits and winter lows plunging well below zero. Blizzards can occur anytime between early fall and late spring, dropping the temperature more than 50 degrees in just a few hours. These events can pile up several feet of snow, often driven by winds in excess of 50 miles an hour. The resulting huge snow drifts can cause serious hardship for livestock, wildlife, and humans. Winters can be open, with bare ground for most of the season, or closed, with several feet of snow persisting until March. Most winters have a number of warm days interspersed with dropping temperatures, usually associated with approaching cold fronts. Spring brings violent thunderstorms, hail, and high winds. Tornadoes occur frequently.
About three-fourths of the precipitation falls as high intensity, convective thunderstorms from late spring through early autumn. The average annual precipitation gradient trends higher from northwest (28”) to southeast (40”), and the average annual temperature gradient trends higher from north (50°F) to south (55°F). Daily winds range from an average of 14 miles per hour during the spring to 11 miles per hour during the late summer. Occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 80 miles per hour.
Native cool-season plants begin growth in early April and continue to about mid-June. Native warm-season plants begin growth in early June and continue to early August. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October.Table 4 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 140-150 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) 160-190 days Precipitation total (characteristic range) 30-40 in Frost-free period (actual range) 130-150 days Freeze-free period (actual range) 150-190 days Precipitation total (actual range) 30-40 in Frost-free period (average) 140 days Freeze-free period (average) 170 days Precipitation total (average) 30 in Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 2. Monthly precipitation range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 3. Monthly minimum temperature range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 4. Monthly maximum temperature range
BarLineFigure 5. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 6. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 7 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) BONNER SPRINGS [USC00140957], Bonner Springs, KS
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(2) HOLTON [USC00143759], Holton, KS
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(3) LAWRENCE [USC00144559], Lawrence, KS
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(4) OSKALOOSA 4 NE [USC00146100], Mc Louth, KS
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(5) ASHLAND NO 2 [USC00250375], Ashland, NE
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(6) PAWNEE CITY [USC00256570], Pawnee City, NE
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(7) TOPEKA MUNI AP [USW00013996], Topeka, KS
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(8) LINCOLN UNIV PWR PLT [USW00014971], Lincoln, NE
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(9) CLINTON LAKE [USC00141612], Lawrence, KS
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(10) VIRGINIA [USC00258875], Virginia, NE
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(11) FALLS CITY BRENNER FLD [USW00094957], Falls City, NE
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(12) MARYSVILLE [USC00145063], Marysville, KS
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(13) BEATRICE 1N [USC00250622], Beatrice, NE
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(14) CRETE [USC00252020], Crete, NE
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(15) MEAD 6S [USC00255362], Ithaca, NE
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(16) RAYMOND 2NE [USC00257055], Raymond, NE
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(17) TABLE ROCK 4 N [USC00258410], Table Rock, NE
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(18) LINCOLN MUNI AP [USW00014939], Lincoln, NE
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(19) CENTRALIA [USC00141408], Centralia, KS
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(20) HIAWATHA 9 ESE [USC00143634], Robinson, KS
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(21) HORTON [USC00143810], Horton, KS
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(22) PERRY LAKE [USC00146333], Perry, KS
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(23) AUBURN 5 ESE [USC00250435], Auburn, NE
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(24) SYRACUSE [USC00258395], Syracuse, NE
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(25) TECUMSEH 1S [USC00258465], Tecumseh, NE
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(26) WAHOO [USC00258905], Wahoo, NE
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(27) WEEPING WATER [USC00259090], Weeping Water, NE
">Influencing water features
While it primarily occurs on uplands, the Clayey Upland ecological site may occur on stream terraces but is not affected by flooding. A perched water table is present in most of these soils in the spring. The site is not considered hydric.
Soil features
The soils associated with the Clayey Upland ecological site are primarily located on uplands, but some soils are found in depressions on stream terraces in valleys. Slopes typically range from 0 to 15 percent but slopes of up to 25 percent are common. These soils were primarily formed in loess, loess over till, weathered till, or residuum weathered from shale. Soils are deep (36 to 60 inches) to very deep (more than 60 inches) with clay loam, clay, silty clay, or silty clay loam surface textures which are typically 6 to 17 inches thick. The subsoil is silty clay or clay and has greater than 45 percent clay. These soils typically are not hydric. Depth to carbonates ranges from 24 to greater than 80 inches.
The Reference State (1) should exhibit slight to no evidence of rills, wind scoured areas, or pedestaled plants. Water flow paths, if any, are broken, irregular in appearance or discontinuous with numerous debris dams or vegetative barriers. The soil surface is stable and intact.
The major soil series correlated to this ecological site in terms of acres include Wymore, Pawnee, Malmo, Otoe, Grundy, and Mayberry. Several lesser series in terms of number of acres are also correlated to the Clayey Upland ecological site. Additional information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more detail specific to your location or visit Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov).
Figure 8. Pawnee soil profile.
Table 5. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Loess
(2) Till
Surface texture (1) Silty clay loam
(2) Clay loam
(3) Silty clay
(4) Clay
Drainage class Moderately well drained to well drained Permeability class Very slow to slow Soil depth 36 – 80 in Surface fragment cover <=3" Not specified Surface fragment cover >3" Not specified Available water capacity
(0-40in)5 – 7 in Calcium carbonate equivalent
(0-40in)0 – 15 % Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)Not specified Sodium adsorption ratio
(0-40in)Not specified Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-40in)4.5 – 8.4 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(0-40in)0 – 10 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(0-40in)0 – 3 % Ecological dynamics
The Clayey Upland ecological site developed under Central Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, sporadic natural or man caused wildfire, and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. This continues to be a disturbance driven site by herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short term weather variations, impacts of native and exotic plant and animal species, and management actions.
The Clayey Upland ecological site developed with fire as an integral part of the ecological processes. Historically, a given area burned on average every 3 to 4 years. Distribution was random, but timing corresponded to the summer season when convective thunderstorms are most likely to occur. However, it is also believed that pre-European settlement in North America, Indigenous people used fire as a management tool for attracting herds of large migratory herbivores as well as for warfare. The role of fire over the past 100 years has been insignificant due to the human control of wildfires and general lack of acceptance of prescribed fire as a management tool. In this region where natural precipitation is capable of supporting eastern deciduous forest, much of this site is vulnerable to encroachment by woody species when fire is removed from the system.
Fire historically played a critical role in maintaining the heterogeneity of this system by removing decadent plant material and creating highly palatable new growth. Large herbivores were attracted to the burned areas and created "grazing lawns". These areas were repeatedly grazed until a new burned area attracted herbivores and reduced grazing pressure in the older burn area. The heterogeneity of vegetative diversity and structure of the landscape created by the numerous patches in various states of vegetative recovery was essential to maintaining a diverse wildlife population. These conditions created the array of seasonal niches necessary for the various wildlife species to thrive. Grassland birds are one suite of species whose habitat requirements are particularly dependent on the mosaic of vegetative structure created by the pyric herbivory/ungulate interactions. Patch burn grazing is an emerging management concept that attempts to emulate this historic system. The degree of herbivory has significant impacts on ecological processes such as nutrient cycling and sunlight capture. Historically, these sites were highly attractive to herds of large migratory herbivores, and grazing patterns and impacts were a primary influence. Secondary influences of herbivory by species such as insects, rodents, and root feeding organisms impacted the vegetation historically, and continue to this day (Helzer, 2010).
The Reference Community (1.1) for this site is tall grass prairie occurring on higher, stable landscape positions that generate runoff. Gentler slopes comprise well developed soils with favorable precipitation capture and retention, while steeper areas will exhibit higher runoff with carbonates remaining near the surface. Under normal weather and soil conditions, sunlight and energy capture are a primary factor limiting plant growth, making this site ideal to support warm-season tall grass communities. The vegetation on this site is locally impacted by topography, and the steepness and aspect of the slope interact with the other ecological processes to further influence vegetative dynamics. The north and east facing slopes are usually cooler and wetter, which results in increased vegetative production but favors invasion by trees and shrubs as well. This often makes these slopes more resistant to restoration of the native grasslands by fire. These areas may require use of specific ignition techniques when conducting a prescribed burn to ensure mortality of invading trees.
One of the primary impacts to this site introduced by European settlement of North America is due to season long continuous grazing by domestic livestock. This grazing strategy causes the repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of individual grasses. The resulting reduction of the plants ability to harvest sunlight depletes the root reserves, subsequently decreasing the root mass. This negatively impacts the ability of plants to compete for life sustaining nutrients resulting in declining vigor and eventual mortality. Grasses with highly elevated growing points (e.g., big bluestem, Indiangrass, gamagrass) and preferred shrubs are the most susceptible to growing season defoliation and typically the first to decrease under unmanaged grazing. The space created in the vegetative community is then occupied by a species that avoids the negative grazing impacts by a growing season adaptation such as a cool-season, shorter structure, or reduced palatability mechanism. Noxious weeds such as leafy spurge, sericea lespedeza, nodding plumeless (musk) thistle, and Canada thistles may take advantage of reduced native cover and vigor; however, the cool season grasses, smooth brome and tall fescue, pose the greatest invasion threat. Smooth brome is the dominant invader in northern portions of the MLRA while tall fescue is more common in the southern portions.
Whereas herds of native ungulates could move freely across the landscape in response to changing conditions, livestock use is constrained in space and often repeated over time, producing a more homogeneous landscape. The management of herbivory by humans through grazing of domestic livestock and manipulation of wildlife populations has been a major modern influence on the ecological dynamics (USDA/SCS, 1977). Additionally, the favorable growing conditions and topography that historically made this one of the largest contributors to the true prairie habitat type in MLRA 106 have also made it one of the most extensively cropped today leaving a fraction of the prairie intact.
The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted following this section and includes a Reference State (1), a Native/Invaded Grass State (2), a Sod-busted State (3), and an Invaded Woody State (4). Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The main properties observed to determine this change are the soil, vegetative communities, and the hydrological cycle. The STM illustrates the common plant communities that can occur on the site and the transition pathways between communities (Bestelmeyer, 2010). The ecological processes will be discussed in more detail in the plant community descriptions following the diagram.
Each state may have one or more vegetative communities that fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and climatic and local fluctuations in the precipitation regime.
Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference State and have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics have been interpreted from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts. Plant communities, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience. The Reference Community (1.1) has been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from abusive disturbance, seasonal use pastures, areas under long term rotational grazing practices, and historical accounts.State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
T1A - Grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods. T1B - Tillage to facilitate production agriculture. T1C - Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management. T2A - Tillage to facilitate production agriculture. T2B - Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management. T3A - Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management. R4A - Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management. R4B - Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management. R4C - Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management. State 1 submodel, plant communities
1.1A - Grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery time. 1.1B - Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire. 1.2A - Grazing or haying with deferment during the warm season portion of the growing season. 1.2B - Grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods. 1.2C - Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire. 1.3A - High intensity grazing limited to early spring and fall. 1.3B - Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire. 1.4A - Reintroduction of herbivory and fire. 1.4B - Reintroduction of herbivory and fire. 1.4C - Reintroduction of herbivory and fire. State 2 submodel, plant communities
2.1A - Heavy, continuous, season long or summer grazing, mid to late summer haying, and early or late and/or excessive fertilization 2.2A - Heavy grazing during early spring and in the fall with no grazing in late spring and summer. State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference StateThe Reference State (1) comprises the communities within the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes. Patterns created by wildlife use and fire supported a mosaic of communities across the landscape. Warm-season tall grasses are dominant, with subdominant contributions from warm-season mid grasses, cool-season grasses, forbs, and shrubs. Eastern gamagrass is uncommon to absent in the northern half of the MLRA but becomes increasingly common southward. Conversely, cool-season grasses, such as porcupinegrass and Canada wildrye, are more prominent in northern portions of the MLRA. High perennial grass cover allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality.
Fire and bison herbivory were the dominant disturbance regimes that historically maintained the tall grass dominance with a diverse forb component. Furthermore, bison grazing was closely linked to fire patterns as the animals preferred grazing burned areas offering highly palatable and nutritious regrowth. Thus, historic plant communities were subject to occasional burning and grazing, with substantial rest and recovery periods as the fuel load accumulated to eventually start this process again. Fires also served to suppress woody species and to maintain an open herbaceous stand. The degree to which current conditions represent this state depends upon how closely contemporary management has mimicked these past disturbance effects.
The Reference State includes the Reference Community (1.1), the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2), the At-Risk Community (1.3), and the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).Dominant plant species
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big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
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Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
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switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), grass
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sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
Community 1.1
Reference Community
Figure 9. Reference Community for the Clayey Upland site in MLRA 106, Gage County, Nebraska.
The Reference or Native Tallgrass Prairie Community (1.1) is dominated by native, perennial, warm-season tall and mid grasses which are co-dominant groups. The composition of the Reference Community is 75 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 0 to 10 percent shrubs, based upon total annual air-dry weight production. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, little bluestem, porcupinegrass, sideoats grama, and switchgrass are the dominant species making up 70 percent or more of the total annual production. Blue grama, prairie junegrass, Scribner’s rosette grass, composite dropseed and various sedges, shrubs, and forbs are also important plants to the site (Kaul 2006, Steinauer 2010, USDA/NRCS 2012). Differences in the production curve may vary with green up being increasingly later in the spring as one moves from south to north within the MLRA.
This plant community is very stable but there is annual variability of expression of the dominant plant species based on current climate and local disturbances. Late spring fires will stimulate warm-season plants while suppressing cool-season grasses and forbs. There is little or no soil loss and runoff is very limited.
The total annual production ranges from 2800 to 4900 pounds of air dry vegetation per acre per year with a representative value of 3800 pounds per acre.Dominant plant species
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leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
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big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
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Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
Figure 10. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 6. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 2610 3400 4275 Forb 165 285 450 Shrub/Vine 35 115 215 Tree 0 0 0 Total 2810 3800 4940 Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1068 , MLRA 106 Warm-season. *Warm-season dominant.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 7 18 30 22 12 6 2 0 0 Community 1.2
Degraded Native Grass Community
Figure 12. Clayey Upland ecological site, Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2), southeast Nebraska, MLRA 106,
The Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) marks a significant reduction in native, perennial, warm-season tall grasses. Native, perennial, warm-season mid grasses are dominant while native, perennial, warm-season tall grasses have become subdominant. The tall grasses have decreased due to continued excessive defoliation or prolonged drought. Warm-season mid grasses such as little bluestem and sideoats grama have increased to fill the void left by declining tall grass species. These species are not as productive as the species they replace, causing a decline in vegetative biomass and forage compared to the Reference Community (1.1) They are also less deeply rooted, and create less residue, contributing to reduced efficiencies in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles, all factors impacting overall soil health.
Total average annual production ranges from 2,950 to 3,800 pounds of air-dry pounds per acre with a representative value of 3,400 pounds per acre.Dominant plant species
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
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big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
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switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
Community 1.3
At-Risk Community
Figure 13. Clayey Upland ecological site, At-Risk Community (1.3), southeast Nebraska, MLRA 106.
In the At-Risk Community (1.3), the more palatable native, perennial, warm-season tall grasses have been reduced to a minor component of the plant community by continued defoliation during their critical growth periods. Native, perennial, warm-season, mid and short grasses and cool-season grasses have increased significantly. Introduced grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, or tall fescue, have begun to encroach on flatter slopes and may be a minor component of the plant community.
Soil health is affected by reduced efficiency in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles as a result of decreases in plant litter and rooting depths.Dominant plant species
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coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
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western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
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smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
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composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
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prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Community 1.4
Excessive Litter CommunityThe Excessive Litter Community (1.4) phase describes the response of the community to the prolonged (greater than 5 years) removal of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire. As the undisturbed litter layer deepens, the plant community becomes over-mature.
Dominant plant species
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western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
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composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
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switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Reference Community
Degraded Native Grass CommunityA shift from the Reference Community (1.1) to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) occurs with continuous season long grazing or with rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. This shift will also occur when the land is hayed multiple times during the growing season with inadequate recovery between haying events.
Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.4Prolonged absence (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances herbivory and fire cause the Reference Community (1.1) to shift to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
Degraded Native Grass Community
Reference CommunityPrescribed grazing and managed haying timed to allow growing season rest of warm-season tall grasses species moves the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the Reference Community (1.1). Prescribed grazing which includes deferment of grazing until late summer after the peak growing period of warm-season species or other grazing strategies focusing on the health and vigor of the warm-season tall grasses will allow them to increase in abundance. Following prolonged drought, reduced stocking rates or growing season deferment will alleviate the impact of inadequate soil moisture.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3
Degraded Native Grass Community
At-Risk CommunityContinuation of continuous season long grazing, rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery time, or multiple haying operations with inadequate recovery time results in the shift from the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the At-Risk Community (1.3). Any combination of timing, frequency, or degree of herbivory and haying that negatively impacts warm-season tall and mid grass species or long-term drought cause the plant community to degrade.
Pathway 1.2C
Community 1.2 to 1.4Prolonged absence (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances herbivory and fire cause the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to shift to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).
Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2
At-Risk Community
Degraded Native Grass CommunityReversing the downward trend that moved the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the At-Risk Community (1.3) can be achieved with prescribed grazing in early spring and fall to reduce the abundance cool-season grasses. Targeting the peak growth period of cool-season grasses with high intensity grazing events followed by summer deferment will allow the native, warm-season tall and mid grasses to increase in terms of productivity, health, and vigor. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Access Control Prescribed Grazing Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.4Prolonged absence (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances herbivory and fire cause a shift from the At-Risk Community (1.2) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).
Pathway 1.4A
Community 1.4 to 1.1Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation to return to the Reference Community (1.1) from the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Pathway 1.4B
Community 1.4 to 1.2Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation to return to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) from the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Pathway 1.4C
Community 1.4 to 1.3Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation to return to the At-Risk Community (1.3) from the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing State 2
Native/Invaded Grass StateThe Native/Invaded Grass State (2) exhibits a co-dominance of native and introduced species. The plant community consists of native, perennial, warm-season, mid and short grasses, native cool-season grasses, and a significant component of introduced grasses. Native, warm-season, tall grasses are either not present or only present as remnant populations. Forb diversity is limited to less palatable species such as ironweed and Cuman ragweed. Impaired energy capture and altered hydrologic function are reflected in reduced vegetative productivity, shallower rooting depth, and degraded soil quality. The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) includes the Native/Invaded Grass Community (2.1) and the Introduced Grass Community (2.2).
Dominant plant species
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coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
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western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
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smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
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composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
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prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
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tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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prairie ironweed (Vernonia fasciculata), other herbaceous
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hoary verbena (Verbena stricta), other herbaceous
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Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
Community 2.1
Native/Invaded Grass Community
Figure 14. Clayey Upland ecological site, Native Mid- and Shortgrass/Non-Native Grass Community (2.1). Southeast Nebraska, MLRA 106.
The Native/Invaded Grass Community (2.1) represents a shift from the Reference State (1) across a major threshold. With continued undermanaged grazing, little bluestem, dropseeds, native cool-season grasses, and cool-season introduced grasses increase. Smooth brome is the dominant invader in the northern half of the MLRA while tall fescue is common in the south. Kentucky bluegrass may be subdominant throughout. Continuous, heavy grazing pressure will convert this plant community to a sod bound condition, and forb richness and diversity will decrease as well.
Total annual production ranges from 1,800 and 2,900 pounds of air-dry herbage per acre per year, with a representative value of 2,300 pounds per acre.Dominant plant species
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smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
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coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
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western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
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composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
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prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
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tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Community 2.2
Introduced Grass Community
Figure 15. Clayey Upland ecological site, Community 2.2 - Tall Fescue dominated community, MLRA 106.
Figure 16. Clayey Upland ecological site, Community 2.2 - Smooth brome dominated community, Southeast Nebraska, MLRA 106.
In the Introduced Grass Community (2.2), either smooth brome or tall fescue are the dominant species. Kentucky bluegrass may have a significant presence. Native warm-season grasses are either absent or present only as remnants. Smooth brome primarily occurs throughout the northern half of the MLRA, while tall fescue is common in the south. Vegetative production from smooth brome and tall fescue dominated communities can be highly variable depending on the species composition and external inputs such as fertilizer and weed control. In a normal year, biomass produced can range from 2,500 to 3,000 pounds per acre, with a representative value of 2,750 pounds per acre where introduced cool-season grasses make up 75 percent or more of the species composition.
Dominant plant species
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tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2
Native/Invaded Grass Community
Introduced Grass CommunityContinued heavy, continuous season long grazing or continued, heavy grazing during the warm season portion of the grazing season will result in further expansion and dominance of non-native cool-season grasses converting the Native/Invaded Grass Community (2.1) to the Introduced Grass Community (2.2). Site structure and function resemble a seeded pasture monoculture, although scattered natives may still be found. The seeding of introduced grasses, mid to late summer haying, and early or late and/or excessive nitrogen fertilization will increase cool-season invaders.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1
Introduced Grass Community
Native/Invaded Grass CommunityThe Introduced Grass Community (2.2) can be returned to the Native/Invaded Grass Community (2.1) by initiating a grazing strategy that focuses grazing pressure during the active growth period of the cool-season grasses while providing rest during the warm season portion of the grazing season. Prescribed fire used in conjunction with a cool season grazing program will accelerate the process. In the presence of a viable native seedbank, nonselective herbicides applied in the early spring and late fall when introduced cool-season grasses are actively growing can be beneficial. Established stands of introduced cool-season grasses may require complete renovation with herbicide treatment followed by reseeding of the native vegetation. Once the warm-season grasses are reestablished, ongoing prescribed grazing and fire management with adequate recovery periods (deferment) during the summer months is critical to prevent the return of the nonnative, cool-season grasses.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing State 3
Sod-busted StateThe threshold to the Sod-busted State (3) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. Extensive areas of this ecological site were plowed and converted to crop production by early European settlers and their subsequent generations. In addition to permanently altering the existing vegetative community, repeated tillage negatively impacted soil properties. Reductions in organic matter, mineral levels, soil structure, oxygen levels, and water holding capacity along with increased runoff and erosion as well as shifts in the populations of soil dwelling organisms were common on these sites. The extent of these changes depended upon the duration of cropping as well as crops grown and other management practices.
If farming operations are suspended, the site can be abandoned or seeded to permanent vegetation. Seedings are either a tame pasture forage mixture, the Seeded Pasture Community (3.2), or a mixture of native grasses and forbs, the Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1). Abandonment results in the Natural Reclamation Community (3.3). Permanent alterations of the soil, plant community, and the hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible.Community 3.1
Reseeded Native Grass CommunityThe Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1) does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, fertility management, and past grazing management. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will be required to maintain productivity and desirable species.
Native range and grasslands seeded to native species are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, grass species seeded, and the extent to which soils and hydrologic function have been impacted by previous farming operations.Community 3.2
Seeded Pasture CommunityThe Seeded Pasture Community (3.2) does not contain native remnants and varies considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment.
There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, grass species seeded, and the extent to which soils and hydrologic function have been impacted by the previous farming operations. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production.Community 3.3
Natural Reclamation CommunityThe Natural Reclamation Community (3.3) consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plow pan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a concern.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.State 4
Invaded Woody StateThe Invaded Woody State (4) is the result of woody encroachment. Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet, the threshold is crossed. Woody species are encroaching due to lack of prescribed fire and other brush management practices. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, degraded forage productivity, and reduced soil quality. This state consists of the Invaded Woody Community (4.1)
Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move this state toward a grass dominated state. If the Invaded Woody State (4) transitioned from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3), the land cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function had been too severely impacted prior to the woody encroachment to allow restoration to the Reference State.Dominant plant species
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eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
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honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), tree
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roughleaf dogwood (Cornus drummondii), tree
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smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
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coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
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western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
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tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
Community 4.1
Invaded Woody Community
Figure 17. Clayey Upland ecological site, Invaded Woody Community (4.1). Grassland invaded by eastern redcedar in southeast Nebraska, MLRA 106.
The Invaded Woody Community (4.1) has at least 15 percent canopy cover consisting of trees generally 5 feet or taller. Encroaching trees are primarily eastern red cedar but honey locust, Siberian elm, roughleaf dogwood, and other species may also be present. Additional woody cover from deciduous trees and shrubs may be present. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern red cedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern red cedar can eventually dominate the site resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production, and which has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat. Due to fire suppression over many years, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of conifer species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a conifer overstory. Eastern red cedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.loesscanyonsburngroup.com).
Re-sprouting brush must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required. This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase in relation to most of the plant communities from which this plant community originated. The water cycle is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is typically increased because of a lack of herbaceous cover and the rooting structure provided by the herbaceous species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.Dominant plant species
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eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
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honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), tree
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roughleaf dogwood (Cornus drummondii), tree
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smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
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coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
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western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
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tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2The transition from the Reference State (1) to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) typically occurs with continuous, season long grazing or with rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. Repeated growing season haying causes a similar species composition shift in the plant community. Repeated defoliation of preferred native, warm-season tall and mid grass species during their active growth period reduces plant vigor and competitiveness. This facilitates an increase of the more grazing tolerant grasses including warm-season short grasses and non-native cool-season species. In response to repeated defoliation, this community will shift to less palatable, more grazing tolerant species including non-native, cool-season invaders such as smooth brome and tall fescue. As this management strategy continues, non-native species colonize and expand to such a degree that restoration to the Reference State (1) through grazing management alone is unlikely. The native forb and shrub component is also affected by the season and degree of livestock pressure.
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3The Reference State (1) is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T1C
State 1 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Reference State (1) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T2B
State 2 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Transition T3A
State 3 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Sodbusted State (3) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (1).
Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Reference State (1). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Native/Invaded Grass State (2). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If re-sprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Sod-busted State (3). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Additional community tables
Table 7. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Warm-Season Tallgrass 1330–1900 big bluestem ANGE Andropogon gerardii 950–1520 – Indiangrass SONU2 Sorghastrum nutans 190–570 – eastern gamagrass TRDA3 Tripsacum dactyloides 0–380 – switchgrass PAVI2 Panicum virgatum 190–380 – 2 Mid Warm Season Grasses 760–1710 little bluestem SCSC Schizachyrium scoparium 570–1140 – composite dropseed SPCO16 Sporobolus compositus 76–380 – sideoats grama BOCU Bouteloua curtipendula 76–190 – purple lovegrass ERSP Eragrostis spectabilis 0–190 – 3 Short Warm Season Grasses 76–190 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 0–190 – hairy grama BOHI2 Bouteloua hirsuta 0–76 – 4 Cool Season Grasses 190–380 porcupinegrass HESP11 Hesperostipa spartea 76–380 – Canada wildrye ELCA4 Elymus canadensis 0–114 – prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 0–76 – western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 0–76 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 0–76 – fall rosette grass DIWI5 Dichanthelium wilcoxianum 0–76 – 5 Grasslike 38–190 sedge CAREX Carex 38–190 – Forb6 Forbs 190–380 Missouri goldenrod SOMI2 Solidago missouriensis 0–114 – white heath aster SYER Symphyotrichum ericoides 0–85 – false boneset BREU Brickellia eupatorioides 0–85 – purple prairie clover DAPU5 Dalea purpurea 0–85 – Maximilian sunflower HEMA2 Helianthus maximiliani 0–85 – stiff sunflower HEPA19 Helianthus pauciflorus 0–85 – western yarrow ACMIO Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis 0–76 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 0–76 – field pussytoes ANNE Antennaria neglecta 0–76 – white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 0–76 – groundplum milkvetch ASCR2 Astragalus crassicarpus 0–76 – butterfly milkweed ASTU Asclepias tuberosa 0–76 – compassplant SILA3 Silphium laciniatum 0–76 – hoary verbena VEST Verbena stricta 0–76 – stiff goldenrod OLRI Oligoneuron rigidum 0–76 – prairie groundsel PAPL12 Packera plattensis 0–43 – silverleaf Indian breadroot PEAR6 Pediomelum argophyllum 0–43 – cobaea beardtongue PECO4 Penstemon cobaea 0–43 – large Indian breadroot PEES Pediomelum esculentum 0–43 – slimflower scurfpea PSTE5 Psoralidium tenuiflorum 0–43 – upright prairie coneflower RACO3 Ratibida columnifera 0–43 – fringeleaf wild petunia RUHU Ruellia humilis 0–43 – azure blue sage SAAZ Salvia azurea 0–43 – prairie blue-eyed grass SICA9 Sisyrinchium campestre 0–43 – white prairie clover DACA7 Dalea candida 0–43 – aromatic aster SYOB Symphyotrichum oblongifolium 0–43 – longbract spiderwort TRBR Tradescantia bracteata 0–43 – whorled milkweed ASVE Asclepias verticillata 0–43 – longbract wild indigo BABR2 Baptisia bracteata 0–43 – roundhead lespedeza LECA8 Lespedeza capitata 0–43 – tall blazing star LIAS Liatris aspera 0–43 – dotted blazing star LIPU Liatris punctata 0–43 – Nuttall's sensitive-briar MINU6 Mimosa nuttallii 0–43 – evening primrose OENOT Oenothera 0–43 – Carolina larkspur DECAV2 Delphinium carolinianum ssp. virescens 0–43 – Illinois ticktrefoil DEIL2 Desmodium illinoense 0–43 – blacksamson echinacea ECAN2 Echinacea angustifolia 0–43 – button eryngo ERYU Eryngium yuccifolium 0–43 – Shrub/Vine7 Shrubs 38–190 coralberry SYOR Symphoricarpos orbiculatus 0–85 – leadplant AMCA6 Amorpha canescens 0–76 – Jersey tea CEHE Ceanothus herbaceus 0–43 – smooth sumac RHGL Rhus glabra 0–43 – prairie rose ROAR3 Rosa arkansana 0–43 – western snowberry SYOC Symphoricarpos occidentalis 0–43 – Table 8. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 9. Community 1.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 10. Community 1.4 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 11. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 12. Community 2.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 13. Community 3.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 14. Community 3.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 15. Community 3.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 16. Community 4.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Animal community
LIVESTOCK - GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide year long forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage may be lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep) requirements. The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season long grazing under normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.
Production and Carrying Capacity*
Community 1.1, Reference Community: 3,800 lbs/acre, 1.20 AUM/acre
*Based upon the following conditions: continuous season long grazing with cattle under average growing conditions, 25 percent harvest efficiency. Air dry forage requirements are based on 3 percent of animal body weight or 790 lbs per animal unit (AU) per month (M). An AU is generally one mature cow of approximately 1,000 pounds and a calf as old as 6 months or their equivalent.
WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 106 lies primarily within the tall grass prairie ecosystem. Prior to European settlement of North America, this area consisted of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional wetlands and limited woody riparian corridors. These habitats provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn that historically occupied this landscape. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects provided a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrived in this landscape.
The tall grass prairie was a disturbance driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement of North America, elimination of fire, widespread conversion to cropland, and other sources of habitat fragmentation significantly altered the appearance and functionality of the entire ecosystem. The reduced stability of the system is reflected by major changes in the composition and abundance of the native flora and fauna. Introduced and invading species further degrade the ecological integrity of the plant and animal communities. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free roaming bison herds and nearly all prairie dogs have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats they provide.
Historically, an ecological mosaic of the sites provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands. Important habitat features and components found commonly or exclusively on modern day remnants include upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds; nesting and escape cover for waterfowl; forbs and insects for brood rearing habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores. Fragmentation has reduced habitat quality for numerous area sensitive species, as highlighted by the decline of the greater prairie chicken. Grassland nesting bird populations such as dickcissel and Henslow's sparrow are also declining. In this fragmented landscape, native grassland bird populations face increasing competition from the opportunistic European starlings and house sparrows and are subject to nest parasitism from brown headed cowbirds. Tree encroachment creates habitat that favors generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove, and provides perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality. Introduced species such as smooth bromegrass, reed canarygrass, Kentucky bluegrass, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), and Canada thistle further degrade the biological integrity of many of these remnant prairies.
1. REFERENCE STATE: The predominance of tall grasses and forbs in this state makes it ideal for grazers and mixed feeders. Pollinating insects play a significant role in maintaining the forb community and provide a food source for birds and other grassland dependent species. The vegetative structural diversity provides habitat for reptiles, amphibians, and a wide array of native and introduced bird species. The abundant prey base supports populations of Swainson’s hawk, short-eared and great horned owls, and other raptors. The grasses, forbs, and shrubs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including moles, mice, ground squirrels, and whitetail deer. The structure of this plant community provides suitable thermal, protective, and escape cover for small herbivores and birds. Many wide-ranging predators utilize this plant community, including coyote, badger, red fox, and least and long tailed weasels. As the plant community degrades to more mid grasses and fewer tall grasses, less winter and escape cover are provided.Hydrological functions
Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on the Clayey Upland ecological site. Woody invasion, particularly by eastern red cedar, exacerbates this issue. Control of invasive shrubs and trees by prescribed fire and mechanical means are important tools in maintaining the site as a grassland. Most soils are in hydrologic group D. Infiltration rate is moderately slow to slow. Runoff potential for this site varies from low to very high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope and ground cover.
Recreational uses
The Clayey Upland ecological site provides hunting for upland game species along with hiking, photography, bird watching, and other opportunities. The wide varieties of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors. Wildflowers are abundant on this site. The most visible wildflowers change from year to year due to the variability among the growing seasons. Because of this variety of wildflowers and grasses, many people tour and collect plant materials from this site for dried floral arrangements.
Wood products
Although several tree species invade this site, they usually do not reach sufficient size to produce wood products except for firewood.
Other products
The deep, productive nature of the soils associated with this site make it attractive for a variety of other land uses. When in large blocks on flatter slopes, they are preferred cropland soils. Introduced pasture plants do well on these soils.
Other information
Site Development and Testing Plan
Future work needed to validate the information in this Ecological Site Description and is needed to develop this ESD to the Correlated level. This will include field activities to collect high intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of that data. Field reviews of the project plan should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists. A final field review, peer review, quality control, and quality assurance reviews of the ESD will be needed to produce the final document.
A project plan needs to be developed for this site.Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from RANGE-417 archives, Rangeland NRI, and other inventory data. Field observations from range trained personnel were also used. In addition to the multitude of NRCS field office employees and private landowners that helped with site visits and local knowledge, those involved in developing this site include: Nebraska NRCS Nadine Bishop, State Rangeland Management Specialist Dan Shurtliff, Assistant State Soil Scientist Sam Cowan, Soil Conservationist Kansas NRCS David Kraft, State Rangeland Management Specialist Tim Miller, Area Rangeland Management Specialist Dwayne Rice, Area Rangeland Management Specialist MLRA Office 5 Stu McFarland, Ecological Site Inventory Specialist, QC Mark Moseley, Ecological Site Inventory Specialist, QA Chris Tecklenburg, Ecological Site Inventory Specialist, QC John Warner, Soil Data Quality Specialist Bruce Evans, 5-LIN MSSO Project Leader National Soil Survey Center Mike Kucera, National Agronomist, Soil Quality & Ecosystems Steve Peaslee, GIS Specialist, Soil Survey Interpretations Nebraska Game & Parks Commission Gerry Steinauer, Botanist Nebraska Forest Service Steve Karloff, District Forester Dennis Adams, Program Leader University of Nebraska – Lincoln Extension Bruce Anderson, Forage Specialist These are the positions each individual held when the project was initiated.
Type locality
Location 1: Douglas County, KS Township/Range/Section T11S R20E S33 General legal description Rockefeller Prairie, University of Kansas Field Station. Other references
Fenneman, Nevin M. 1916. Physiographic Subdivision of the United States. Annals of the
Association of American Geographers.
Helzer, Chris. 2010. The Ecology and Management of Prairies in the Central U.S. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press/The Nature Conservancy.
Kaul, Robert B., David Sutherland, and Steven Rolfsmeier. 2006. The Flora of Nebraska. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska – Lincoln (Conservation and Survey Division, School of Natural Resources.)
Multiple authors. 2010. Rangelands: Ecological Sites (Special Issue) pp 2-64. Wheat Ridge, CO: Society for Range Management.
NOA/UNL – High Plains Regional Climate Center. Historical Data Summaries:
http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/data/historical/
Steinauer, Gerry and Steve Rolfsmeier. 2010. Terrestrial Ecological Systems and Natural Communities of Nebraska. Lincoln, NE: Nebraska Natural Heritage Program and Nebraska Game and Parks Commission.
USDA/ARS/SWRC. 2013. Dynamic Rangeland Hydrology and Erosion Model Tool (DRHEM), Version 2.0. http://apps.tucson.ars.ag.gov/drhem/
USDA/USFS. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections for the Conterminous United States. Washington, DC: USDA - Forest Service.
USDA/SCS. 1977. Rangeland Resources of Nebraska. Lincoln, NE: Society for Range Management. USDA/NRCS. 2011. ESD User Guide. Fort Worth, TX: Central National Technology Support Center.
USDA/NRCS. 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook. Fort Worth, TX: Grazing Lands Technical Institute.
USDA/NRCS. 2012a. Field Office Technical Guide (Nebraska, Natural Resources Information, Statewide Soil and Site Information, Rangeland Interpretations, Nebraska Range Site Descriptions – Vegetative Zone 4), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Nebraska Ecological Sciences.
USDA/NRCS. 2012b. Field Office Technical Guide (Kansas, Natural Resources Information, Ecological Site Descriptions, Range Sites), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Nebraska Ecological Sciences.
USDA/NRCS 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296.Contributors
Stu McFarland
Doug Whisenhunt
Nadine BishopApproval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 6/09/2025
Acknowledgments
Original Site Description Approval: Author Date Approval Date DLarsen 11/28/2007 DLarsen 11/28/2007
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Original Authors: Joseph May and Doug Whisenhunt Version V Authors: Anna Ferguson, Aaron Hird, Justin Linder, Dusty Schwandt, Doug Spencer, Chris Tecklenburg, Nadine Bishop, Jeff Nichols Contact for lead author jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov Date 11/30/2024 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
Typically, none. Water flow patterns are not expected on this site except on slopes exceeding 15 percent. When present, water flow patterns will be rare, short (6 to 12 inches or 15 to 30 cm) and disrupted by perennial vegetation. -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None. Pedestals and terracettes are not expected to occur on this site. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is 5 percent or less. Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), litter, standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae). -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. Wind scoured and/or depositional areas are not expected on this site. -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Typically, none. Litter movement is not expected on this site except on slopes exceeding 15 percent and due to high intensity storms. In this case, fine litter movement will be short distances of 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm) and be associated with water flow patterns. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability ratings will be 5 to 6, typically 6. High root content and organic matter will be present in the soil surface. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
The surface horizon (A) typically ranges from 5 to 20 inches thick but may be thicker. Soil colors in the surface horizon are typically dark brown, very dark brown, very dark grayish brown, very dark gray or black (hue: 10YR, value: 2 or 3, chroma: 1 or 2) when moist and very dark gray, dark gray, brown, dark grayish brown, very dark grayish brown (hue: 10YR, value: 3 or 4, chroma: 1 to 3) when dry. Soil structure in the upper horizon ranges from weak fine granular, weak medium granular, moderate medium granular, to moderate fine subangular blocky parting to moderate medium granular. See Official Soils Descriptions for additional details. The primary soil series correlated to the site include Wymore, Pawnee, Malmo, Otoe, and Grundy. Other series include Armster, Baileyville, Benefield, Butler, Edalgo, Filbert, Haig, Mayberry, Osaka, Padonia, and Wamego. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Plant community composition of 75 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 0 to 10 percent shrubs will optimize infiltration on the site. The grass and grass-like portion is composed of warm-season, mid grass (20-50%), warm-season, tall grass (35-45%), cool-season grass (2-5%), warm-season, short grass (2-5%), and grass-likes (1-5%). Infiltration can be adversely impacted by the invasion of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, tall fescue, and trees when present above 10 percent (subdominant designation). -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. No compaction layers are expected for this site. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Phase 1.1: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass, 1330-1900 #/ac, 35-50% (3 species minimum): big bluestem, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, switchgrass. 2. Native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass, 760-1710#/ac, 20-45% (3 species minimum): little bluestem, composite dropseed, sideoats grama, purple lovegrass. Phase 1.2: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass (3 species minimum): little bluestem, composite dropseed, sideoats grama, purple lovegrass. Phase 1.3: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass (2 species minimum): little bluestem, composite dropseed, sideoats grama, purple lovegrass.Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.2: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass (2 species minimum): big bluestem, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, switchgrass. Phase 1.3: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass (1 species minimum): blue grama, hairy grama. 2. Native, perennial, cool-season grass (2 species minimum): porcupinegrass, Canada wildrye, prairie junegrass, western wheatgrass, Scribner's rosette grass, fall rosette grass.Other:
Minor - Phase 1.1: 1. Native forbs, 165-380 #/ac, 4-10%: forbs present vary from location to location. 2. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass, 76-190#/ac (2-5%): blue grama, hairy grama. 3. Native, perennial, cool-season grass, 76-190 #/ac, 2-5%: porcupinegrass, Canada wildrye, prairie junegrass, western wheatgrass, Scribner's rosette grass, fall rosette grass. 4. Grass-likes, 38-190 #/ac, 1-5%: sedges. 5. Shrubs, 38-190 #/ac, 1-5%: coralberry, leadplant, Jersey tea, smooth sumac, prairie rose, western snowberry. Minor - Phase 1.2: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass: blue grama, hairy grama. 2. Native, perennial, cool-season grass: porcupinegrass, Canada wildrye, prairie junegrass, western wheatgrass, Scribner's rosette grass, fall rosette grass. 3. Native forbs: forbs present vary from location to location. 4. Grass-likes: sedges. 5. Shrubs: coralberry, leadplant, Jersey tea, smooth sumac, prairie rose, western snowberry. Minor - Phase 1.3: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass: big bluestem, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, switchgrass. 2. Non-native, cool-season grass: Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, tall fescue. 3. Native forbs: forbs present vary from location to location. 4. Grass-likes: sedges. 5. Shrubs: coralberry, leadplant, Jersey tea, smooth sumac, prairie rose, western snowberry.Additional:
The Reference Community (1.1) includes seven F/S groups. These groups in order of abundance are native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; native forbs; native, perennial, warm-season, short grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; grass-likes; shrubs. The Degraded Tallgrass Prairie Community (1.2) includes seven F/S groups. These groups in order of abundance are native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; native, perennial, warm-season, short grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; native forbs; grass-likes; shrubs. The At-Risk Native Grass Community (1.3) includes eight F/S groups. These groups in order of abundance are native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; native, perennial, warm-season, short grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; non-native, cool-season grass; native forbs; grass-likes; shrubs. -
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Recruitment of plants is occurring; there is a diverse mixture of age classes among the plants. A few (less than 3 percent) dead centers may occur in bunch grasses. Shrubs may show some dead branches (less than 5 percent) as plants age. Plant mortality may increase to 10 to 15 percent following a multi-year drought, wildfire, or a combination of the two events. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter is expected to be 70 to 80 percent cover, at a depth of approximately 0.5 inch (1.25 cm) and evenly distributed throughout the site. Kentucky bluegrass is known to produce excessive litter accumulations that negatively impact site functionality. -
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Production is shown in air-dry values. Representative Value (RV) = 3,800 pounds per acre. Low production years = 2,812 pounds per acre. High production years = 4,940 pounds per acre. -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
No non-native invasive species are present. Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, Caucasian bluestem, tall fescue, eastern red cedar, honey locust, rough leaf dogwood, Siberian elm, Osage orange, leafy spurge, and sericea lespedeza are known invasives that have the potential to be dominant or co-dominant on the site. Consult the state noxious weed and state watch lists for potential invasive species on each ecological site. NOTE: Invasive plants (for the purposes of the IIRH protocol) are plant species that are typically not found on the ecological site or should only be in trace or minor categories under the natural disturbance regime and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the site if their establishment and growth are not actively controlled by natural disturbances or management interventions. Species listed characterize degraded states AND have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species. -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to climatic conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.
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