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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
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Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 106X–Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills
Named the “Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills,” Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 106 is divided almost evenly between southeastern Nebraska (52%), and northeastern Kansas, (48%). The approximately seven-million-acre landscape covers all or parts of thirty counties between the two states. The northern border is located on the north end of Saunders County, Nebraska, and the MLRA extends into Douglas County, Kansas in the south. The Nebraska cities of Beatrice and Lincoln are the major population centers in the north, while Topeka and Lawrence in Kansas are the primary cities in the south. The Platte, Little Nemaha, and the North Fork of the Big Nemaha Rivers flow through the Nebraska side of the MLRA, while the Black Vermillion, the Soldier, and the Delaware Rivers are the major waterways on the Kansas side. The Big Blue River runs through both states, while the Salt Creek hydrologic system located near Lincoln, Nebraska provides habitat for the only known population of the Federally listed endangered Salt Creek Tiger Beetle.
This dissected glacial drift plain primarily consists of broad, smooth ridgetops, and slopes ranging from nearly level to steep. The elevation in MLRA 106 decreases from west to east, and ranges from nearly 1,650 feet to less than 790 feet above sea level. Stream valleys in this landscape are narrow and bordered by steep hills, with 10 to 20 feet of local relief. The river valleys are broader and may drop up to over 160 feet below the adjacent hilltops. The uplands are primarily comprised of glacial drift underlying a mantle of loess, while alluvial deposits are found in the stream and river valleys. Limestone and shale quarries are also located in MLRA 106. The predominant soil orders in this MLRA are mesic, udic, Mollisols, Alfisols, and Entisols. Loams and clays are the primary soil textures in this landscape.
Sixty-two percent of the land in this MLRA has been broken out of native prairie and farmed, while only 23 percent of the grasslands remain. Livestock grazing, primarily by cattle, is the main industry on these remnants. Corn, wheat, soybeans, and grain sorghum are the primary commodity crops, but a significant number of acres are also planted to alfalfa for harvest as hay. With annual precipitation averaging from 40 inches in the southeast, to 28 inches in the northwest, irrigation for crop production is not a critical factor in most years.
The historical matrix vegetation type is Tallgrass Prairie, and big and little bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, sideoats, and blue grama make up the bulk of the warm-season species. Historically, western wheatgrass was the dominant cool-season grass but today the dominant cool-season grasses are introduced grasses, smooth brome in the north and tall fescue in the south. Large and small patch vegetative communities are found primarily along the riparian zones, and on both upland and lowland saline sites. Woodlands make up about six percent of MLRA 106, consisting primarily of green ash, oak, hackberry, boxelder, and maple trees.
Wildlife flourishes in this combination of crop and grassland environments. In a landscape historically occupied by bison herds, white-tailed deer are now the most abundant wild ungulates. A variety of smaller species, including coyote, raccoon, opossum, porcupines, muskrat, beaver, squirrel, and mink thrive in the region. Native grassland bird populations are limited by the lack of contiguous native prairie and the fragmented habitat created by the farmland. The rivers, streams, and lakes harbor excellent fisheries, and migrating and local waterfowl use the wetland complexes. These complexes provide ideal habitat for wading and shore bird species as well.
This landscape serves as a backdrop for a disturbance driven ecosystem, evolving under the influences of herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Historically, these processes created a heterogeneous mosaic of plant communities and structure heights across the region. Any given site in this landscape experienced fire every three to four years. Fires were caused by lightning strikes and also were set by Native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. The Indigenous inhabitants understood the value of fire as a tool and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing game animals such as bison and elk.
Land use patterns by post European settlers have fragmented the native grasslands through conversion to cropland, transportation corridors, and other developments. This has significantly altered the natural fire regime allowing encroachment by native and introduced shrubs and trees into the native prairie remnants throughout the MLRA. Aggressive fire suppression policies have exacerbated this process to the point that shrub and tree encroachment is a major ecological threat in the majority of both native and reseeded grasslands. Introduction of eastern red cedar as a windbreak species further facilitates invasion by this species. While eastern red cedar is native to the landscape, the historic population in MLRA 106 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainageways that were protected from fire. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern red cedar as a primary component have provided a seed source for the aggressive woody plant. The ensuing encroachment into the native grasslands degrades the native wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock. Since it is not a root-sprouter, eastern red cedar is very susceptible to fire when under six feet tall. Management with prescribed fire is exceedingly effective if applied before this stage. Larger eastern red cedars can also be controlled with fire, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques.Classification relationships
►USDA-NRCS (2022)◄
Land Resource Region – M, Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) – 106
►Fenneman (1916) Physiographic Regions ◄
Division – Interior Plains
Province – Central Lowland
Section – Dissected Till Plains
►USDA-USFS (2007) Ecoregions◄
Domain – Humid Temperate
Division – Prairie
Province – Prairie Parkland (Temperate)
Section – Central Dissected Till Plains (251C)
►EPA Ecoregions (Omernik 1997)◄
I – Great Plains (9)
II – Temperate Prairies (9.2)
III – Western Corn Belt Plains (9.2.3)
IV – Loess and Glacial Drift Hills (47i)
►Associated Counties◄
Nebraska: Butler, Cass, Gage, Jefferson, Johnson, Lancaster, Nemaha, Otoe, Pawnee, Richardson, Saline, Saunders, Seward
Kansas: Atchison, Brown, Doniphan, Douglas, Franklin, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Leavenworth, Marshall, Nemaha, Osage, Pottawatomie, Shawnee, Wabaunsee, Washington, WyandotteEcological site concept
The Loamy Terrace ecological site is primarily found on elevated terrace positions just above the floodplain in river valleys. The site receives additional moisture from runoff originating from higher on the landscape. Flooding may occur at very rare to rare intervals. Slopes typically range from 0 to 2 percent but may be up to 12 percent. Soils are very deep (60 inches or more) with surface textures of silt loam or silty clay loam that are 12 to 20 inches thick or thicker. These somewhat moderately well to well drained soils are formed in alluvium. The vegetation of the Reference State is dominated by warm-season tall grasses. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, prairie cordgrass, and switchgrass are the primary species. The majority of these sites have been farmed.
Associated sites
R106XY032NE Subirrigated
The Subirrigated ecological site is often located adjacent to the Loamy Terrace ecological site.
R106XY074NE Clayey Upland
The Clayey Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to but in higher landscape position than the Loamy Terrace ecological site.
R106XY075NE Loamy Upland
The Loamy Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to but in higher landscape position than the Loamy Terrace ecological site.
Similar sites
R106XY068NE Loamy Floodplain
The Loamy Floodplain and Loamy Terrace ecological sites occur on similar soils but the Loamy Floodplain ecological site is subject to occasional flooding while the Loamy Terrace ecological site is not.
R106XY032KS Subirrigated (PE 30-37)
The Subirrigated ecological site has a higher water table than the Loamy Terrace ecological site and a higher percentage of species that are tolerant of moist soils in the vegetative community.
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree (1) Ulmus
(2) QuercusShrub (1) Rhus glabra
(2) Ceanothus cuneatusHerbaceous (1) Andropogon gerardii
(2) Sorghastrum nutansPhysiographic features
The Loamy Terrace ecological site is located on elevated terrace positions along river valleys. This site is a run on site that typically receives water from the upland sites.
Figure 2. Block Diagram
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) Valley > Stream terrace
(2) River valley > Terrace
Runoff class Low Flooding frequency Very rare to rare Ponding frequency None Elevation 730 – 1000 ft Slope 0 – 12 % Water table depth 36 – 72 in Aspect Aspect is not a significant factor Climatic features
Like most Great Plains landscapes, the climate in this MLRA is under the sway of the continental effect. This creates a regime of extremes, with summer highs often in the triple digits and winter lows plunging well below zero. Blizzards can occur anytime between early fall and late spring, dropping the temperature more than 50 degrees in just a few hours. These events can pile up several feet of snow, often driven by winds in excess of 50 miles an hour. The resulting huge snow drifts can cause serious hardship for livestock, wildlife, and humans. Winters can be open, with bare ground for most of the season, or closed, with several feet of snow persisting until March. Most winters have a number of warm days interspersed with dropping temperatures, usually associated with approaching cold fronts. Spring brings violent thunderstorms, hail, and high winds. Tornadoes occur frequently.
About three-fourths of the precipitation falls as high intensity, convective thunderstorms from late spring through early autumn. The average annual precipitation gradient trends higher from northwest (28”) to southeast (40”), and the average annual temperature gradient trends higher from north (50°F) to south (55°F). Daily winds range from an average of 14 miles per hour during the spring to 11 miles per hour during the late summer. Occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 80 miles per hour.
Native cool-season plants begin growth in early April and continue to about mid-June. Native warm-season plants begin growth in early June and continue to early August. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October.Table 3 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 140-150 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) 160-190 days Precipitation total (characteristic range) 30-40 in Frost-free period (actual range) 130-160 days Freeze-free period (actual range) 160-190 days Precipitation total (actual range) 30-40 in Frost-free period (average) 140 days Freeze-free period (average) 170 days Precipitation total (average) 30 in Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 3. Monthly precipitation range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range
BarLineFigure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 8 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) CENTRALIA [USC00141408], Centralia, KS
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(2) HIAWATHA 9 ESE [USC00143634], Robinson, KS
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(3) LAWRENCE [USC00144559], Lawrence, KS
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(4) OSKALOOSA 4 NE [USC00146100], Mc Louth, KS
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(5) PERRY LAKE [USC00146333], Perry, KS
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(6) AUBURN 5 ESE [USC00250435], Auburn, NE
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(7) CRETE [USC00252020], Crete, NE
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(8) SYRACUSE [USC00258395], Syracuse, NE
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(9) WAHOO [USC00258905], Wahoo, NE
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(10) BONNER SPRINGS [USC00140957], Bonner Springs, KS
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(11) HOLTON [USC00143759], Holton, KS
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(12) HORTON [USC00143810], Horton, KS
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(13) ASHLAND NO 2 [USC00250375], Ashland, NE
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(14) TECUMSEH 1S [USC00258465], Tecumseh, NE
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(15) TOPEKA MUNI AP [USW00013996], Topeka, KS
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(16) LINCOLN UNIV PWR PLT [USW00014971], Lincoln, NE
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(17) PAWNEE CITY [USC00256570], Pawnee City, NE
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(18) MARYSVILLE [USC00145063], Marysville, KS
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(19) MEAD 6S [USC00255362], Ithaca, NE
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(20) RAYMOND 2NE [USC00257055], Raymond, NE
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(21) TABLE ROCK 4 N [USC00258410], Table Rock, NE
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(22) VIRGINIA [USC00258875], Virginia, NE
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(23) WEEPING WATER [USC00259090], Weeping Water, NE
">Influencing water features
The Loamy Terrace ecological site occurs on nearly level areas that receive additional water primarily runoff from uplands but may rarely receive additional water from overflow of streams.
Soil features
The soils associated with the Loamy Terrace ecological site are located on stream terraces. Slopes typically range from 0 to 2 percent but may be as much as 12 percent. These soils were formed in alluvium and colluvium. The soils are very deep (60 inches or greater) with silt loam or silty clay loam surface textures which are typically 12 to 20 inches thick. Soils are moderately well to well drained and receive additional moisture from runoff and rarely experience flooding. The soils associated with the site have moderately low to high saturated hydraulic conductivity.
The major soil series correlated to this ecological site include Eudora, Kenridge, and Reading. Other soil series correlated to the site are Belvue, Chase, Judson, Kennebec, and Rossville. Additional information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more details specific to your location or visit Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov).
Figure 9. Judson series
Table 4. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Alluvium
(2) Colluvium
Surface texture (1) Silt loam
(2) Silty clay loam
Drainage class Moderately well drained to well drained Permeability class Very slow to moderate Soil depth 60 in Surface fragment cover <=3" Not specified Surface fragment cover >3" Not specified Available water capacity
(0-40in)7 – 10.6 in Calcium carbonate equivalent
(0-40in)0 – 2 % Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)0 – 2 mmhos/cm Sodium adsorption ratio
(0-40in)Not specified Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-40in)5 – 7.8 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(0-40in)Not specified Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(0-40in)Not specified Ecological dynamics
Loamy Terrace ecological sites developed under Central Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, sporadic natural or man caused wildfire, and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. This continues to be a disturbance driven site, by herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short term weather variations, impacts of native and exotic plant and animal species, and management actions. The landscape position and association with streams make this site somewhat less susceptible to fire, which allowed woody species to become more abundant than less sheltered sites in the MLRA.
One of the primary impacts to this site introduced by European settlement of North America is season long continuous grazing by domestic livestock. This management practice causes the repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of individual tall warm-season grasses. The resulting reduction of the plants ability to harvest sunlight depletes the root reserves, subsequently decreasing the root mass. This negatively impacts the ability of plants to compete for life sustaining nutrients, resulting in declining vigor, and eventual mortality. The space created in the vegetative community is then occupied by a species that avoids the negative grazing impacts by a growing season adaptation such as a cool-season, shorter structure, or reduced palatability mechanism.
The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted below and includes a Reference State (1), a Native/Invaded Grass State (2), a Sod-busted State (3) and an Invaded Woody State (4). Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The main properties observed to determine this change are the soil and vegetative communities, and the hydrological cycle.
Each state may have one or more vegetative communities that fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and climatic and local fluctuations in the precipitation regime. Periodic flooding and deposition events can cause a wide variability in plant communities and production on this site.
Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference State and have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics have been interpreted from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts. Plant communities, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience.State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
T1A - Heavy, continuous grazing or rotational grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods. T1B - Tillage to facilitate production agriculture. T1C - Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management. T2A - Tillage to facilitate production agriculture. T2B - Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management. T3A - Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management. R4A - Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management. R4B - Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management R4C - Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management. State 1 submodel, plant communities
1.1A - Continuous season-long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. 1.1B - Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire. 1.2A - Prescribed grazing with adequate, growing season recovery (deferment) time. 1.2B - Prolonged continuous, season long grazing or rotational grazing or haying with inadequate, growing season recovery. 1.2C - Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire. 1.3A - Prescribed grazing with rest during the rapid growth period of warm-season, tall and mid grasses. 1.3B - Prolonged (>5 years) absence of herbivory and fire. 1.4A - Reintroduction of herbivory and fire. 1.4B - Reintroduction of herbivory and fire. 1.4C - Reintroduction of herbivory and fire. State 2 submodel, plant communities
2.1A - Excessive warm season grazing, inadequate recovery, multi season haying and nitrogen fertilization in the spring or fall. 2.2A - Herbicide treatment and seeding; limit grazing to rapid growth period of cool-season grasses. State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference StateThe Reference State describes the range of vegetative community phases that occur on the Loamy Terrace ecological site where the natural processes are mostly intact. The Reference Community (1.1) is a representation of the native plant community phase that occupies a site that has been minimally altered by management. The Degraded Native Grass (1.2), the At-Risk (1.3), and the Excessive Litter (1.4) Communities are the phases that result from management decisions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community. High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality.
Dominant plant species
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green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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oak (Quercus), tree
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elm (Ulmus), tree
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big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
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switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
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Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
Community 1.1
Reference Community
Figure 10. Loamy Terrace ecological site, Reference Community (1.1) in eastern Kansas, MLRA 106.
The Reference or Native Tallgrass Prairie Community (1.1) serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and fire and grazing events.
The potential vegetation consists of approximately 80 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to10 percent forbs, 0 to 5 percent shrubs, and 0 to 2 percent trees. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, prairie cordgrass, and switchgrass are the primary species in this community. Eastern gamagrass is an important grass species in the southern portion of the MLRA. Secondary species include little bluestem, sedges, composite dropseed, sideoats grama, and western wheatgrass. The site has a diverse forb population. A deciduous woody population that includes elm, green ash, oak, and eastern cottonwood may be present.
This plant community is highly productive, diverse, and resistant to short term stresses such as drought and short periods of heavy stocking. The well-developed root systems support resiliency when allowed adequate recovery periods between grazing events. When exposed to long term or frequent over grazing events without adequate rest, this plant community will degrade.
The vegetative production varies significantly from the northern to southern portion of the MLRA. The representative value for production is 4,200 pounds per acre in the northern portion of the MLRA and 6,500 pounds per acre in the southern portion. Annual production ranges from a minimum of 3,000 pounds per acre in the north to a maximum of 10,000 lbs per acre in the south. The production and species data depicted in the associated species composition table are from the northern portion of the MLRA and should be interpreted accordingly.Dominant plant species
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
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oak (Quercus), tree
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elm (Ulmus), tree
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leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
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Jersey tea (Ceanothus herbaceus), shrub
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prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
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big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
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switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
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Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), grass
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Illinois ticktrefoil (Desmodium illinoense), other herbaceous
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Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoensis), other herbaceous
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stiff sunflower (Helianthus pauciflorus), other herbaceous
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roundhead lespedeza (Lespedeza capitata), other herbaceous
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cobaea beardtongue (Penstemon cobaea), other herbaceous
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compassplant (Silphium laciniatum), other herbaceous
Figure 11. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 2790 3638 7136 Forb 210 315 420 Shrub/Vine 0 205 210 Tree 0 42 84 Total 3000 4200 7850 Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1064 , Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills. Warm season dominant with occasional overflow.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 1 4 10 25 30 14 8 5 2 1 0 Community 1.2
Degraded Native Grass Community
Figure 13. Degraded Native Grass Community on the Loamy Terrace site in eastern Kansas, MLRA 106.
Big bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, and other desirable species lose productive capacity through loss of vigor and reproductive potential. Forb diversity is reduced. Maximillian sunflower, rosinweed, and compassplant numbers decline. Ragweed and other less palatable species increase. Leadplant declines while western snowberry and smooth sumac patches begin to increase. Warm-season mid grasses such as little bluestem, purple lovegrass, dropseeds, and sideoats grama are dominant. Cool-season grasses and grass-likes such as western wheatgrass and various sedges have increased. Kentucky bluegrass and other non-native, cool-season grasses may be present in trace amounts.
This community phase signals a significant loss of production and develops with continuous season long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate recovery periods. It can also occur when hayed with inadequate recovery time between cuttings. Grazing tolerant warm-season and cool-season grasses increase. The composition of the forb component remains diverse. The potential for encroachment by invasive woody species becomes more likely, due to the reduction in deep rooted species and a reduced fuel load to carry fire. While this plant community is less productive and less diverse than the representative plant community, it remains sustainable in regard to site and soil stability, hydrologic function, and biotic integrity.
The average annual vegetative production in the northern portion of the MLRA is 3,200 lbs/acre.Dominant plant species
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
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oak (Quercus), tree
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elm (Ulmus), tree
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western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
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smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
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coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
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prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
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composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
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Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
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Missouri goldenrod (Solidago missouriensis), other herbaceous
Community 1.3
At-Risk Community
Figure 14. Loamy Terrace ecological site, At-Risk Community, southeast Kansas, MLRA 106.
In the At-Risk Community (1.3), the more palatable warm-season tall grasses have been reduced to a minor component of the plant community due to continued defoliation during their critical growth periods. Warm-season mid and short grasses and cool-season grasses increase significantly. The dominant grasses include dropseeds, sideoats grama, blue grama, western wheatgrass, and other native cool-season grasses. Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, or tall fescue have a significant presence but have not reached subdominant status. Annuals may be present, often in abundance. Palatable forbs have been reduced, and the dominant forbs are unpalatable species such as goldenrod, ironweed, and heath aster. The woody component of the plant community may begin to increase.
Soil health is affected by reduced efficiency in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles as a result of decreases in plant litter and rooting depths. Total annual vegetative production declines significantly. Without a management change, this community is at risk to transition to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2).Dominant plant species
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oak (Quercus), tree
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elm (Ulmus), tree
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
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smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
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western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
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prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
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composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
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western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
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blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
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goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
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ironweed (Vernonia), other herbaceous
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white heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), other herbaceous
Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1069 , MLRA 106 Warm/cool-season mix.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 1 4 10 23 26 17 8 6 4 1 0 Community 1.4
Excessive Litter CommunityThe Excessive Litter Community (1.4) develops when the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire are removed from the system. Litter significantly exceeds the amount expected on the site and the species present can tolerate a thatch layer. Individual plants tend to be clumped and there is an excessive amount of litter. Species that cannot tolerate an extensive litter layer have low vigor and reduced productivity.
Once the undisturbed litter layer develops to a certain level, a significant amount of precipitation is held in this layer, increasing evaporation, limiting soil available moisture, and simulating drought conditions. If the herbivory or fire are not reintroduced, the plant community will experience a significant amount of death loss.Dominant plant species
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
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big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Reference Community
Degraded Native Grass CommunityA shift from the Reference Community (1.1) to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) occurs with continuous season long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. This shift will also occur with haying without adequate recovery time between cuttings.
Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.4Prolonged interruption (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert the Reference Community (1.1) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
Degraded Native Grass Community
Reference CommunityA shift from the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) toward the Reference Community (1.1) can be achieved through implementation of prescribed grazing which includes appropriate stocking rates and adequate, growing season recovery time (deferment). This grazing strategy will enable the more deeply rooted warm-season tall grasses to recover and regain their productive capacity. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3
Degraded Native Grass Community
At-Risk CommunityProlonged continuous, season long grazing or rotational grazing or haying with inadequate recovery periods (deferment) during the growing season moves the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the At-Risk Community (1.3).
Pathway 1.2C
Community 1.2 to 1.4Prolonged interruption (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).
Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2
At-Risk Community
Degraded Native Grass CommunityReversing the downward trend and moving the At-Risk Community (1.3) to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) can be achieved by implementing prescribed grazing which includes targeted grazing early and late in the growing season to reduce cool-season grasses. Targeting the peak growth period of cool-season grasses with high intensity grazing events followed by rest during the primary growth period of warm-season grasses will allow the native, warm-season, tall and mid grasses to increase. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.4Prolonged interruption (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert the At-Risk Community (1.3) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).
Pathway 1.4A
Community 1.4 to 1.1Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation of the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to return to the Reference Community (1.1).
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Pathway 1.4B
Community 1.4 to 1.2Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation of the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to return to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2).
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Pathway 1.4C
Community 1.4 to 1.3Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation of the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to return to the At-Risk Community (1.3).
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing State 2
Native/Invaded Grass StateThe Native/Invaded Grass State (2) has been degraded from the Reference State (1) and much of the native warm-season grass community has been replaced by less desirable plants. The loss of warm-season, tall and mid grasses has negatively impacted energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration is reduced due to the shallow root system and rapid runoff characteristics of the grazing tolerant plant communities. Alterations to the soil and the hydrological processes make return to reference state unlikely. This state includes two communities, the Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass (2.1) and the Invaded Cool-Season Grass (2.2) Communities.
Dominant plant species
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elm (Ulmus), tree
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
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green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
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oak (Quercus), tree
-
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
-
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
-
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
-
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
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Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
-
curlycup gumweed (Grindelia squarrosa), other herbaceous
Community 2.1
Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass CommunityThis plant community represents a shift from the Reference State (1) across a plant community threshold. With continued grazing pressure, warm-season short grasses such as blue grama and buffalograss become the dominant plant species and Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome or tall fescue increase to subdominant or co-dominant levels. Trace remnants of the more palatable warm-season tall and mid grasses may be present. Annual brome grasses are often abundant in large patches. Forb richness and diversity has decreased. Forbs associated with this community include ironweed, ragweed, and heath aster. Leadplant is rare in this phase, while sumac patches continue to expand. Plant diversity is low.
With the decline and loss of deeper penetrating root systems, a compacted layer may form in the soil profile below the shallower replacement root systems. Continuous and heavy grazing pressure will maintain this plant community in a sod bound condition. Grazing management practices that incorporate adequate periods of recovery between grazing events will allow the warm-season, tall and mid grasses to increase. Return to the Reference State (1) is unlikely due to the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance.Dominant plant species
-
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. deltoides), tree
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eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
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smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
-
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
-
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
-
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
-
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
-
hoary verbena (Verbena stricta), other herbaceous
-
ironweed (Vernonia), other herbaceous
Community 2.2
Invaded Cool-Season Community
Figure 16. Invaded Cool-season Community on the Loamy Terrace site in southeast Kansas, MLRA 106.
The Invaded Cool-Season Community (2.2) is dominated by smooth brome or tall fescue. Kentucky bluegrass and annual bromes may also be present. Some native, warm-season, tall and mid grass remnants may be present. Palatable forbs have been replaced by unpalatable species that can survive in brome or fescue sod. Palatable shrubs have been replaced by more unpalatable species. Production of this plant community is highly variable, depending upon the percentages of species present and outside inputs such as fertilizer and weed control.
Dominant plant species
-
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
-
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
-
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
-
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
-
false boneset (Brickellia eupatorioides), other herbaceous
-
hoary verbena (Verbena stricta), other herbaceous
Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1067 , Nebraska and Kansas Loess Drift Hills. Invaded cool season dominant.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 5 13 28 28 12 5 6 3 0 0 Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2The Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass Community (2.1) will be converted to the Invaded Cool-Season Community (2.2) through the following practices: Introduced grass seeding, excessive warm season grazing, inadequate warm season rest, multi season haying and nitrogen fertilizing in the spring or fall.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1The Invaded Cool-Season Community (2.2) can be returned to the Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Cool-Season Community (2.1) with herbicide treatment and reseeding. If adequate native remnants are present, appropriately timed prescribed fire and a follow-up prescribed grazing program with grazing limited to the rapid growth period of the invasive cool-season grasses may achieve the desired results.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing State 3
Sod-busted StateThe threshold to the Sod-busted State (3) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. Extensive areas of this ecological site were plowed and converted to crop production by early European settlers and their subsequent generations. In addition to permanently altering the existing vegetative community, repeated tillage negatively impacted soil properties. Reductions in organic matter, mineral levels, soil structure, oxygen levels, and water holding capacity along with increased runoff and erosion as well as shifts in the populations of soil dwelling organisms were common on these sites. The extent of these changes depended upon the duration of cropping as well as crops grown and other management practices.
If farming operations are suspended, the site can be abandoned or seeded to permanent vegetation. Seedings are either a tame pasture forage mixture, the Seeded Pasture Community (3.2), or a mixture of native grasses and forbs, the Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1). Abandonment results in the Natural Reclamation Community (3.3). Permanent alterations of the soil, plant community, and the hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible.Community 3.1
Reseeded Native Grass CommunityThe Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1) does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, fertility management, and past grazing management. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will be required to maintain productivity and desirable species.
Native range and grasslands seeded to native species are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, and grass species seeded.Community 3.2
Seeded Pasture CommunityThe Seeded Pasture Community (3.2) does not contain native remnants and varies considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment.
There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the level of management and species seeded. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production.Community 3.3
Natural Reclamation CommunityThe Natural Reclamation Community (3.3) consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plow pan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a concern.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.State 4
Invaded Woody StateThe Invaded Woody State (4) is the result of woody encroachment. Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet, the threshold is crossed. Woody species are encroaching due to lack of prescribed fire and other brush management practices. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, degraded forage productivity, and reduced soil quality. This state consists of the Invaded Woody Community (4.1)
Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move this state toward a grass dominated state. If the Invaded Woody State (4) transitioned from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3), the land cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted prior to the woody encroachment to allow restoration to the Reference State (1).Dominant plant species
-
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
-
oak (Quercus), tree
-
elm (Ulmus), tree
-
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
-
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
-
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
-
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
-
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
-
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
-
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
Community 4.1
Invasive Woody CommunityThe Invasive Woody Community (4.1) has at least 15 percent canopy cover consisting of trees generally 5 feet or taller. Sycamore, elm, ash, oak, and cottonwood are some of the deciduous invaders, while eastern red cedar is the primary evergreen encroacher. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern red cedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern red cedar can eventually dominate the site resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production, and which has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat. Due to fire suppression over many years, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of conifer species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a conifer overstory. Eastern red cedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.loesscanyonsburngroup.com).
Re-sprouting brush must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required. This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase in relation to most of the plant communities from which this plant community originated. The water cycle is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is typically increased because of a lack of herbaceous cover and the rooting structure provided by the herbaceous species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.Dominant plant species
-
American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
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eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
-
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
-
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
-
elm (Ulmus), tree
-
oak (Quercus), tree
-
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
-
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
-
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
-
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
-
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
-
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2Heavy, continuous grazing or rotational grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods (deferment) will cause the Reference State (1) to lose a significant proportion of tall and mid warm-season grass species and cross a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2). Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root matting presence of sod forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper penetrating root systems, soil structure and biological integrity are degraded to the point that recovery is unlikely. Once this occurs, it is highly unlikely that grazing management alone will return the community to the Reference State (1).
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3The Reference State (1) is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T1C
State 1 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Reference State (1) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3The state is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil, and the hydrology of the system make restoration to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) unlikely.
Transition T2B
State 2 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Transition T3A
State 3 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Sod-busted State (3) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Reference State (1). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If re-sprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Native/Invaded State (2). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If re-sprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Sod-busted State (3). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If re-sprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Additional community tables
Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Native Warm-Season Tallgrass 1890–2940 big bluestem ANGE Andropogon gerardii 630–2025 – Indiangrass SONU2 Sorghastrum nutans 420–1260 – switchgrass PAVI2 Panicum virgatum 0–630 – eastern gamagrass TRDA3 Tripsacum dactyloides 0–420 – Grass, perennial 2GP Grass, perennial 0–210 – 2 Native Warm-Season Midgrass 420–1470 little bluestem SCSC Schizachyrium scoparium 420–1470 – sideoats grama BOCU Bouteloua curtipendula 0–210 – prairie dropseed SPHE Sporobolus heterolepis 0–210 – purple lovegrass ERSP Eragrostis spectabilis 0–210 – Grass, perennial 2GP Grass, perennial 0–210 – 3 Native Cool-Season Grass 210–420 western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 42–210 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 0–210 – Canada wildrye ELCA4 Elymus canadensis 0–210 – Virginia wildrye ELVI3 Elymus virginicus 0–210 – porcupinegrass HESP11 Hesperostipa spartea 0–210 – prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 0–210 – Grass, perennial 2GP Grass, perennial 0–210 – 4 Native Warm-Season Shortgrass 42–210 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 42–210 – Grass, perennial 2GP Grass, perennial 0–210 – 5 Grass-like 0–210 sedge CAREX Carex 0–210 – Forb6 Native Forb 210–420 white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 0–420 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 0–420 – blue wild indigo BAAUA Baptisia australis var. australis 0–420 – wavyleaf thistle CIUN Cirsium undulatum 0–420 – white prairie clover DACA7 Dalea candida 0–420 – purple prairie clover DAPU5 Dalea purpurea 0–420 – button eryngo ERYU Eryngium yuccifolium 0–420 – Maximilian sunflower HEMA2 Helianthus maximiliani 0–420 – ashy sunflower HEMO2 Helianthus mollis 0–420 – stiff sunflower HEPA19 Helianthus pauciflorus 0–420 – roundhead lespedeza LECA8 Lespedeza capitata 0–420 – tall blazing star LIAS Liatris aspera 0–420 – dotted blazing star LIPU Liatris punctata 0–420 – slimflower scurfpea PSTE5 Psoralidium tenuiflorum 0–420 – fringeleaf wild petunia RUHU Ruellia humilis 0–420 – pitcher sage SAAZG Salvia azurea var. grandiflora 0–420 – compassplant SILA3 Silphium laciniatum 0–420 – Missouri goldenrod SOMI2 Solidago missouriensis 0–420 – Baldwin's ironweed VEBA Vernonia baldwinii 0–420 – Illinois bundleflower DEIL Desmanthus illinoensis 0–420 – Illinois ticktrefoil DEIL2 Desmodium illinoense 0–420 – cobaea beardtongue PECO4 Penstemon cobaea 0–400 – bluejacket TROH Tradescantia ohiensis 0–210 – groundplum milkvetch ASCR2 Astragalus crassicarpus 0–210 – Forb, native 2FN Forb, native 0–210 – butterfly milkweed ASTU Asclepias tuberosa 0–84 – whorled milkweed ASVE Asclepias verticillata 0–84 – green antelopehorn ASVI2 Asclepias viridis 0–84 – common yarrow ACMI2 Achillea millefolium 0–84 – Carolina larkspur DECAV2 Delphinium carolinianum ssp. virescens 0–84 – white wild indigo BAAL Baptisia alba 0–84 – false boneset BREU Brickellia eupatorioides 0–84 – Carolina anemone ANCA9 Anemone caroliniana 0–84 – Indianhemp APCA Apocynum cannabinum 0–84 – swamp verbena VEHA2 Verbena hastata 0–84 – hoary verbena VEST Verbena stricta 0–84 – upright prairie coneflower RACO3 Ratibida columnifera 0–84 – pinnate prairie coneflower RAPI Ratibida pinnata 0–84 – blackeyed Susan RUHI2 Rudbeckia hirta 0–84 – blacksamson echinacea ECAN2 Echinacea angustifolia 0–84 – Shrub/Vine7 Native Shrub 0–210 leadplant AMCA6 Amorpha canescens 42–210 – Jersey tea CEHE Ceanothus herbaceus 42–210 – smooth sumac RHGL Rhus glabra 0–210 – prairie rose ROAR3 Rosa arkansana 42–210 – western snowberry SYOC Symphoricarpos occidentalis 0–210 – coralberry SYOR Symphoricarpos orbiculatus 42–210 – Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) 0–210 – Tree8 Native Tree 0–84 Tree 2TREE Tree 0–42 – eastern cottonwood PODE3 Populus deltoides 0–42 – green ash FRPE Fraxinus pennsylvanica 0–42 – elm ULMUS Ulmus 0–42 – oak QUERC Quercus 0–42 – Table 7. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 8. Community 1.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 9. Community 1.4 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 10. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 11. Community 2.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 12. Community 3.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 13. Community 3.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 14. Community 3.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 15. Community 4.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Animal community
LIVESTOCK – GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage may be lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep) requirements. The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season long grazing under normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.
Production and Carrying Capacity*
Community 1.1, Reference Community: 4,200 lbs/acre, 1.15 AUM/acre
*Based upon the following conditions: continuous season long grazing with cattle under average growing conditions, 25 percent harvest efficiency. Air dry forage requirements are based on 3 percent of animal body weight or 790 lbs per animal unit (AU) per month (M). An AU is generally one mature cow of approximately 1,000 pounds and a calf as old as 6 months or their equivalent.
WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 106 lies primarily within the tall grass prairie ecosystem. Prior to European settlement of North America, this area consisted of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional wetlands and limited woody riparian corridors. These habitats provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn that historically occupied this landscape. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects provided a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrived in this landscape.
The tall grass prairie was a disturbance driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement of North America, elimination of fire, widespread conversion to cropland, and other sources of habitat fragmentation significantly altered the appearance and functionality of the entire ecosystem. The reduced stability of the system is reflected by major changes in the composition and abundance of the native flora and fauna. Introduced and invading species further degrade the ecological integrity of the plant and animal communities. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free-roaming bison herds and nearly all prairie dogs have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats they provide.
Historically, an ecological mosaic of the sites provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands. Important habitat features and components found commonly or exclusively on modern day remnants include upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds; nesting and escape cover for waterfowl; forbs and insects for brood rearing habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores. Fragmentation has reduced habitat quality for numerous area sensitive species, as highlighted by the decline of the greater prairie chicken. Grassland nesting bird populations such as dickcissel and Henslow's sparrow are also declining. In this fragmented landscape, native grassland bird populations face increasing competition from the opportunistic European starlings and house sparrows and are subject to nest parasitism from brown headed cowbirds. Tree encroachment creates habitat that favors generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove, and provides perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality. Introduced species such as smooth bromegrass, reed canarygrass, Kentucky bluegrass, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), and Canada thistle further degrade the biological integrity of many of these remnant prairies.
1. REFERENCE STATE: The predominance of tall grasses and forbs in this community makes it ideal for grazers and mixed feeders. Pollinating insects play a significant role in maintaining the forb community and provide a food source for grassland birds and other grassland dependent species. The vegetative structural diversity provides habitat for reptiles, amphibians, and a wide array of native and introduced bird species. The abundant prey base supports populations of Swainson’s hawk, short eared, and great horned owls, and other grassland raptors. The grasses, forbs, and shrubs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including moles, mice, ground squirrels, and white-tailed deer. The structure of this plant community provides suitable thermal, protective, and escape cover for small herbivores and grassland birds. Many wide-ranging predators utilize this plant community, including coyote, badger, red fox, and least and long tailed weasels. As the plant community degrades to more mid grasses and fewer tall grasses, less winter and escape cover are provided.Hydrological functions
The majority of these very deep soils are moderately well to well drained, with some instances of somewhat poorly drained. The soils correlated to the Loamy Terrace ecological site place it in classes A, C, and D of the hydrological rating scale. The proximity of groundwater to the rooting zone of the deeply rooted tall grasses during the growing season provides an abundance of water for the tall grass component of the vegetative community, and vegetative production can be very high.
Recreational uses
The Loamy Terrace ecological site provides hunting for upland game species and white-tailed deer, along with hiking, photography, and bird watching. The wide varieties of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wood products
In MLRA 106, the Loamy Terrace ecological sites often have scattered populations of deciduous trees. These stands can provide firewood, select hardwood finishing lumber, and in some cases, cottonwoods can be used to make pallets. In the Invaded Woody State, eastern red cedar may provide posts and cedar boards from the larger trees.
Other products
None of significance.
Other information
Site Development and Testing Plan:
Additional data collection and evaluation will be needed to develop this ESD to the Correlated level. This could include field activities to collect low, medium, and high intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of that data. Field reviews of the project plan should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists.Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from new and historic data collection and field observations from range trained personnel.
Other references
Harms, R. 2009. Recovery Outline for the Salt Creek tiger beetle (Cicindela nevadica lincolniana). Available online. http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/invertebrates/saltcreektiger/FinalRecoveryOutlineFeb2009.pdf. Accessed 1/02/2018.
High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. Available online. http://hpcc.unl.edu. Accessed 12/05/16.
Johnsgaard, P.A. 2001. “The Nature of Nebraska.” University of Nebraska Press.
Muhs, Daniel R., E. Bettis III, J. Aleinikoff, J. McGeehin, J. Beann, G. Skipp, B. Marshall, H. Roberts, W. Johnson, and R. Benton. "Origin and paleoclimatic significance of late Quaternary loess in Nebraska: Evidence from stratigraphy, chronology, sedimentology, and geochemistry" (2008). USGS Staff -- Published Research, Paper 162. Available online. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usgsstaffpub/162. Accessed 12/05/16.
Spomer, S. and L. Higley. 2001. The Salt Creek Tiger Beetle. Bio-graphica International. Available online. http://drshigley.com/lgh/sctb/default.htm. Accessed 1/02/2018.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. NRCS National Ecological Site Handbook. Available online. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/ref/?cid=nrcseprd1291232 Accessed January, 2014.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Section 4. Available online. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/viewerFS.aspx?hid=21422.
Accessed August, 2011.
Personal communications with professional ecologists and wildlife experts.
Rolfsmeier, S.B. and G. Steinauer. 2010. "Terrestrial Ecological Systems and Natural Communities of Nebraska", (version IV). Nebraska Natural Heritage Program.
USDA, NRCS. National Water and Climate Center, Portland, OR. Available online. http://wcc.nrcs.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.
USDA, NRCS.1997. National Range and Pasture Handbook.
USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, Fort Collins, CO. Available online. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.
USDA, NRCS. 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. Available online. http://plants.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.
USDA, NRCS Soil Surveys from: Butler, Saunders, Lancaster, Cass, Otoe, Nemaha, Johnson, Gage, Pawnee, Saline, Seward, Saunders and Richardson Counties in Nebraska; and Atchison, Brown, Doniphan, Douglas, Franklin, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Leavenworth, Marshall, Nemaha, Osage, Pottawatomie, Shawnee, Wabaunsee, Washington, Wyandotte Counties in Kansas.Contributors
Nadine Bishop
Stu McFarland
Joe May
Doug WhisenhuntApproval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 6/09/2025
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Original Authors: Joseph May and Doug Whisenhunt Version V Authors: Anna Ferguson, Aaron Hird, Justin Linder, Dusty Schwandt, Doug Spencer, Chris Tecklenburg, Nadine Bishop, Jeff Nichols. Contact for lead author jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov Date 11/30/2024 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
None. Water flow patterns are not expected on this site. -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None. Pedestals and terracettes are not expected to occur on this site. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is 5 percent. Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), litter, standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae). -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. Wind scoured and/or depositional areas are not expected on this site. -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
None. Litter movement is not expected on this site -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability ratings will be 5 to 6, typically 6. High root content and organic matter will be present in the soil surface. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
The surface horizon (A) typically ranges from 14 to 30 inches thick but may be thicker. Soil colors in the surface horizon are typically very dark grayish brown, very dark brown, dark gray, very dark gray, or black (hue: 10YR, value: 2or 3, chroma: 1 or 2) when moist and very dark grayish brown, dark grayish brown, grayish brown, very dark brown, very dark gray, or dark gray (hue: 10YR, value: 3 to 5, chroma: 1 or 2) when dry. Soil structure in the upper horizon ranges from weak fine granular, weak medium granular, moderate fine granular parting to weak fine granular, or weak medium subangular blocky parting to weak fine granular. See Official Soils Descriptions (OSD) for additional details. The major soils correlated to the Loamy Terrace ecological site include Eudora, Kenridge, and Reading. Belvue, Chase, Judson, Kennebec, and Rossville are also correlated to the site. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Plant community composition of 80 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs will optimize infiltration on the site. The grass and grass-like portion is composed of warm-season, tall grasses (45-70%), warm-season, mid grasses (10-35%), cool-season grasses (5-10%), warm-season, short grasses (1-5%), and grass-likes (0-5%). There may be a trace presence (0-2%) of native, deciduous trees on the site. Infiltration can be adversely impacted by the invasion of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, tall fescue, and trees when present above10 percent (subdominant designation). -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. No compaction layers are expected for this site. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Phase 1.1: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass, 1890-2940 #/ac, 45-70% (2 species minimum): big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, eastern gamagrass. 2. Native, perennial, warm season, mid grass, 420-1470 #/ac, 10-35% (1 species minimum): little bluestem, sideoats grama, prairie dropseed, purple lovegrass. Phase 1.2: 1. Native, perennial, warm season, mid grass (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sideoats grama, prairie dropseed, purple lovegrass. Phase 1.3: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass (2 species minimum): blue grama, buffalograss. 2. Native, perennial, cool-season grass (2 species minimum): western wheatgrass, Scribner's rosette grass, Canada wildrye, Virginia wildrye, porcupinegrass, prairie junegrass.Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.2: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass (2 species minimum): big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, eastern gamagrass. 2. Native, perennial, cool-season grass (2 species minimum): western wheatgrass, Scribner's rosette grass, Canada wildrye, Virginia wildrye, porcupinegrass, prairie junegrass. 3. Grass-likes (1 species minimum): sedges. Phase 1.3: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sideoats grama, prairie dropseed, purple lovegrass. 2. Grass-likes: sedges.Other:
Minor - Phase 1.1: 1. Native, perennial, cool-season grass, 210-420 #/ac, 5-10%: western wheatgrass, Scribner's rosette grass, Canada wildrye, Virginia wildrye, porcupinegrass, prairie junegrass. 2. Native forbs, 210-420 #/ac, 5-10%: forbs present vary from location to location. 3. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass, 42-210 #/ac, 1-5%: blue grama, buffalograss. 4. Grass-likes, 0-210 #/ac, 0-5%: sedges. 5. Shrubs, 0-210 #/ac, 0-5%: leadplant, Jersey tea, prairie rose and other shrubs that vary from location to location. Minor - Phase 1.2: 1. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass: blue grama, buffalograss. 2. Shrubs: shrubs present vary from location to location. 3. Native forbs: forbs present vary from location to location. Minor - Phase 1.3: 1. Native forbs: forbs present vary from location to location. 2. Native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass (3 species minimum): big bluestem, switchgrass, eastern gamagrass. 3. Shrubs: shrubs present vary from location to location. 4. Native, deciduous trees: willow, elm, cottonwood, and other trees which vary from location to location. 5. Non-native, cool-season grass: Kentucky bluegrass, annual bromes, tall fescue, smooth brome. Trace - Phase 1.1: 1. Native, deciduous trees, 0-48#/ac, 0-2%: willow, elm, cottonwood, and other trees which vary from location to location. Trace - Phase 1.2: 1. Native, deciduous trees: willow, elm, cottonwood, and other trees which vary from location to location. 2. Non-native, cool-season grass: Kentucky bluegrass, annual bromes, tall fescue, smooth bromegrass. Trace - Phase 1.3: 1. Native, coniferous trees: eastern red cedar.Additional:
The Reference Community (1.1) includes eight F/S groups which are in order of abundance are native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; forbs; native, perennial, warm-season, short grass; grass-likes; shrubs; native, deciduous trees. The Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) also includes nine F/S groups which are native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; grass-likes; native, perennial, warm-season, short grass; shrubs; forbs; native, deciduous trees; non-native, cool-season grass. The At-Risk Community (1.3) contains ten F/S groups. These groups include native, perennial, warm-season, short grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; grass-likes; native forbs; native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; shrubs; native, deciduous trees; non-native, cool-season grass; native, coniferous trees. -
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Recruitment of plants is occurring, there is a diverse mixture of age classes among the plants. A few (less than 3 percent) dead centers may occur in bunchgrasses. Shrubs and trees may show some dead branches (less than 5percent) as plants age. Plant mortality may increase to 10 to 15 percent following a multi-year drought, wildfire, or a combination of the two events. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter is expected to be 70 to 80 percent cover, at a depth of approximately 0.5 inch (1.25 cm) and evenly distributed throughout the site. Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome are known to produce excessive litter accumulations that negatively impact site functionality. -
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Production is shown in air-dry values. Northern portion of MLRA: Representative Value (RV) = 4,200 pounds. Low production years = 3,000 pounds per acre. High production years = 7,850 pounds per acre. Southern portion of MLRA: Representative Value (RV) = 6,500 pounds. Low production years = 5,000 pounds per acre. High production years = 10,000 pounds per acre. -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
No non-native invasive species are present. Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, Caucasian bluestem, tall fescue, eastern red cedar, honey locust, rough leaf dogwood, Siberian elm, Osage-orange, leafy spurge, and sericea lespedeza are known invasives that have the potential to be dominant or co-dominant on the site. Consult the state noxious weed and state watch lists for potential invasive species on each ecological site. NOTE: Invasive plants (for the purposes of the IIRH protocol) are plant species that are typically not found on the ecological site or should only be in trace or minor categories under the natural disturbance regime and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the site if their establishment and growth are not actively controlled by natural disturbances or management interventions. Species listed characterize degraded states AND have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species. -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to climatic conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.
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