Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site R075XY051NE
Sandy Floodplain
Last updated: 4/17/2025
Accessed: 08/22/2026
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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
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Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 075X–Central Loess Plains
Named “The Central Loess Plains,” MLRA 75 is located primarily in south-central Nebraska, with about 10 percent lying in north-central Kansas. This approximately 5.3 million acre landscape covers all or parts of 21 counties: Gosper, Phelps, Kearney, Adams, Clay, Fillmore, York, Hall, Hamilton, Seward, Butler, Polk, Saline, Gage, Harlan, Franklin, Thayer, Nuckolls, and Webster in Nebraska, with a significant presence in Republic and Washington counties in Kansas. This MLRA is home to the unique ecological system called “The Rainwater Basin,” which is comprised of a 24,000-acre network of wetlands and uplands that occupy portions of 13 of the northern counties and is internationally known for its significance to millions of migratory birds.
The landscape primarily consists of gently rolling plains, with a number of narrow, shallow stream valleys. The river valleys are broader, and most feature a number of terraces. The northern border is defined by the Platte River. The elevation in MLRA 75 ranges from nearly 2,600 feet to less than 1,100 feet above sea level. The local relief averages from 10 to 25 feet but may stretch to a maximum of 165 feet in some areas. The average annual precipitation ranges from 23 to 36 inches, and the number of freeze-free days range from 150 to 200.
Loess overlays the surface of almost all of the uplands in this MLRA. Alluvial clay, silt, sand, and gravel are deposited in the stream and river valleys and can be extensive in the major drainages. Terraces are common in the valleys along the river systems. The predominant soil orders in this geographic area are mesic, ustic Mollisols, commonly represented by the Geary, Hastings, Holder, Holdrege, Kenesaw, and Uly soil series. The matrix vegetation type is mixed-grass prairie, with big and little bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, and sideoats and blue grama to make up the bulk of the warm-season species, while western wheatgrass is the dominant cool-season grass.
Seventy two percent of the land in this MLRA has been broken out of native prairie and farmed; the land is primarily planted to corn, wheat, and grain sorghum, while only eighteen percent of the grasslands remain intact. Livestock grazing, primarily by cattle, is the main industry on these remnants. Irrigation of croplands uses over 90 percent of the total annual water withdrawal in this area.
Wildlife flourishes in this combination of crop and grassland environment, with both mule and white-tailed deer being the most abundant wild ungulates. A variety of smaller species, including coyote, raccoon, opossum, porcupines, muskrat, beaver, squirrel, and mink thrive in the region, as well as several upland bird species. Grassland bird populations are somewhat limited by the lack of contiguous native prairie and fragmented habitat created by the farmland. The rivers, streams, and lakes harbor excellent fisheries, and an estimated tens of millions of migrating and local waterfowl use the wetland complexes. These complexes provide ideal habitat for many different wading and shore bird species as well.
This landscape serves as a backdrop for a disturbance-driven ecosystem, evolving under the influences of herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Historically, these processes created a heterogeneous mosaic of plant communities and structure heights across the region. Any given site in this landscape experienced fire every 6 to 8 years. The fires were caused by lightning strikes and also were set by native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. These people understood the value of fire as a tool, and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided both excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing game animals such as bison and elk.
Fragmentation of the native grasslands by conversion to cropland, transportation corridors, and other developments have effectively disrupted the natural fire regime of this ecosystem. This has allowed encroachment by native and introduced shrubs and trees into the remnants of the native prairie throughout the MLRA. Aggressive fire suppression policies have exacerbated this process to the point that shrub and tree encroachment is a major ecological issue in the majority of both native and reseeded grasslands.
Even as post-European settlement's alteration of the fire regime allows the expansion of the woody component of the native prairie, introduction of eastern redcedar (ERC) as a windbreak species further facilitates invasion by this species. While eastern red cedar is native to Nebraska, the historic population in MLRA 75 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainages which were subsequently insulated from fire. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern redcedar as a primary component have provided a seed source for the aggressive woody plant. The ensuing encroachment into the native grasslands degrades the native wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock.
Since it is not a root sprouter, eastern red cedar is very susceptible to fire when under six feet tall. Management with prescribed fire is exceedingly effective if applied before this stage. Larger redcedars can also be controlled with fire, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques.Classification relationships
NRCS FOTG Section 1 - Nebraska Vegetation Zone 3.
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 75 (USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2006)Ecological site concept
This site occurs on nearly level to moderately sloping floodplains and low terraces. The Sandy Floodplain site is characterized by soils with greater than 55 percent sand in the surface. The soils characteristic of this site formed in sandy alluvium from mixed sources.
Associated sites
R075XY050NE Loamy Terrace
This site is located above and adjacent to the Sandy Floodplain site.
R075XY054NE Sandy
This site occurs adjacent to and in conjunction with the Sandy Floodplain sites. The Sandy ecological site occurs on plains.
R075XY046NE Subirrigated
This site occurs adjacent to and in conjunction with Sandy Floodplain. This site occurs on nearly level to very gently sloping areas along drainageways of uplands and sand hills, below permanent springs, and on floodplains in valleys with high water tables. This site is subject to flooding except for positions on interdunes. The soils have a seasonal high water table within the root zone that limits the species capable of long-term survival within the site. This site receives runoff from areas higher on the landscape.
Similar sites
R075XY068NE Loamy Floodplain
The Loamy Floodplain occurs in similar landscape positions to the Sandy Floodplain, but has silty textures, while the sandy Floodplain has sandy textures.
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree Not specified
Shrub Not specified
Herbaceous (1) Andropogon hallii
(2) Schizachyrium scopariumPhysiographic features
The Sandy Floodplain site occurs on nearly level to moderately sloping floodplains, upland drainageways, alluvial fans, and terraces. This site consists of deep, well drained to excessively well drained soils formed in stratified moderately coarse alluvium on bottomlands. The surface layer textures are sandy or loamy. The Sandy Floodplain site receives runoff from areas higher on the landscape and flooding frequency ranges from rare to occasional while flooding duration is very brief to brief. Sedimentation is usually rare but is common on alluvial fans and terraces. The water table may enter the root zone but is not the dominant factor controlling vegetative growth. This site often occupies the first bench between the streambed and higher sandy land.
Figure 2. Sandy Floodplain Block diagram MLRA 75
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) Flood plain
(2) Stream terrace
Runoff class Negligible to low Flooding duration Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to brief (2 to 7 days) Flooding frequency None to occasional Ponding frequency None Elevation 500 – 3500 ft Slope 0 – 9 % Water table depth 24 – 60 in Aspect Aspect is not a significant factor Climatic features
Like most Great Plains landscapes, the climate in this MLRA is under the sway of the continental effect. This creates a regime of extremes, with summer highs often in the triple digits, and winter lows plunging well below zero. Blizzards can occur anytime between early fall and late spring, often dropping the temperature more than 50 degrees in just a few hours. These events can pile up several feet of snow, often driven by winds in excess of 50 miles an hour. The resulting huge snow drifts can cause serious hardship for livestock, wildlife, and humans. Winters can be open, with bare ground for most of the season, or closed, with up to several feet of snow persisting until March. Most winters have a number of warm days, interspersed with dropping temperatures, usually associated with approaching cold fronts. Spring brings violent thunderstorms, hail, high winds, and frequent tornadoes. Daily winds range from an average of 14 miles per hour during the spring to 11 miles per hour during the late summer. Occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 80 miles per hour.
Growth of native cool season plants begin in early April and continues to about mid-June. Native warm season plants begin growth in early June and continue to early August. Green up of cool season plants may occur in September and October.Table 3 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (average) 160 days Freeze-free period (average) 180 days Precipitation total (average) 30 in BarLineFigure 3. Monthly precipitation range
BarLineFigure 4. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 5. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 6 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) GENEVA [USC00253175], Geneva, NE
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(2) MINDEN [USC00255565], Minden, NE
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(3) RED CLOUD [USC00257070], Red Cloud, NE
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(4) CLAY CTR [USC00251684], Saronville, NE
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(5) FAIRMONT [USC00252840], Fairmont, NE
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(6) HASTINGS 4N [USC00253660], Hastings, NE
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(7) HEBRON [USC00253735], Hebron, NE
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(8) OSCEOLA [USC00256375], Osceola, NE
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(9) RAGAN [USC00257002], Alma, NE
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(10) SURPRISE [USC00258328], Surprise, NE
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(11) YORK [USC00259510], York, NE
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(12) BELLEVILLE [USC00140682], Belleville, KS
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(13) AURORA [USC00250445], Aurora, NE
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(14) FRIEND 3E [USC00253065], Friend, NE
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(15) SUPERIOR 4E [USC00258320], Hardy, NE
">Influencing water features
This site is made up of alluvial soils that have a water table greater than 6 feet from the surface. Fluctuations with this water table occur and there could be times throughout the year that it is less than 6 feet from the surface. Water influences this site due to landform position. This site is adjacent to streams and is in a water receiving position.
Soil features
The soils on this site are moderately deep to deep and range from well drained to excessively well drained. The parent material is local alluvium formed in stratified moderately coarse alluvium bottomlands. The surface soil is from 4 to 20 inches thick, generally is light colored, and ranges widely from very fine sandy loam to loamy fine sand in texture. The underlying material is light colored and ranges widely in texture. Carbonates are often leached from the upper soil profile but may occur throughout in some soils. The content of organic matter is generally low to moderately low. Available water capacity ranges from very low to moderate. Flooding is rare to occasional, depending on landform, and normally is very brief.
Major soil series correlated to this ecological site are Inavale, and Cass. More information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for internet links to soil survey data that includes more details specific to your location.
Figure 7. Inavale Soil Profile
Table 4. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Alluvium
(2) Eolian sands
Surface texture (1) Fine sandy loam
(2) Loamy fine sand
(3) Loam
Drainage class Moderately well drained to excessively drained Permeability class Moderate to rapid Soil depth 80 – 0 in Surface fragment cover <=3" Not specified Surface fragment cover >3" Not specified Available water capacity
(0-40in)1.8 – 7.6 in Calcium carbonate equivalent
(0-40in)0 – 10 % Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)0 – 2 mmhos/cm Sodium adsorption ratio
(0-40in)Not specified Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-40in)5.1 – 8.4 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 25 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(Depth not specified)Not specified Ecological dynamics
Sandy Flood Plain sites developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, sporadic natural or man-caused wildfires, and other biotic and abiotic factors which typically influence soil/site development. This continues to be a disturbance-driven site, by herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Changes occur in the plant communities due to weather variations, impacts of native and/or exotic plant and animal species, and management actions.
One of the primary impacts to this site introduced by European-man is season-long continuous grazing by domestic livestock. This management practice causes the repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of individual warm-season tallgrasses. The resulting reduction of the ability of the plants to harvest sunlight depletes the root reserves, subsequently decreasing the root mass. This negatively impacts the ability of the plants to compete for life-sustaining nutrients, resulting in declining vigor and eventual mortality. The space created in the vegetative community is then occupied by a species that evades the negative grazing impacts by a growing season adaptation (such as a cool-season), a shorter structure, or a reduced palatability mechanism.
The State-and-Transition Model (STM) is depicted below, and is made up of a Reference State, a Native/Invaded Grass State, a Sod-busted State, and an Invaded Woody State. Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The main properties observed to determine this change are the soil and vegetative communities and the hydrological cycle.
Each state may have one or more vegetative communities which fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man-caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and climatic and local fluctuations in the precipitation regime.
Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference State and have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics have been interpreted from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts. Plant communities, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience.
Growth of native cool-season plants begins about April 1 and continues to about June 15. Native warm-season plants begin growth about May 15 and continue to about August 15. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October if adequate moisture is available.
The following is a diagram illustrating the common plant communities that can occur on the site and the transition pathways between communities.State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
State 1 submodel, plant communities
Communities 1, 5 and 2 (additional pathways)
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference StateThis state describes the range of vegetative community phases that occur on the Sandy Floodplain site where the natural processes are mostly intact.
The Reference Community is a representation of the native plant community phase that occupies a site that has been minimally altered by management. The Degraded Native Grass, the At-Risk Native Grass, and the Excessive Litter Communities are the phases that result from management decisions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community. The Ephemeral Forb Community is the result of a high intensity disturbance event.
High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality.Dominant plant species
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sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
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sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
Community 1.1
Reference CommunityThe Reference Community serves as a description of the native mixed-grass plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact, or closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and fire and grazing events.
The potential vegetation consists of approximately 70 to 90 percent grasses and grass-like plants, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 5 to 10 percent shrubs. Sand bluestem, little bluestem, Indiangrass and switchgrass are the primary species in this community. Secondary species include prairie sandreed, sideoats grama, western wheatgrass, sand lovegrass, and Canada wildrye. The site has a very diverse forb population.
This plant community is highly productive, diverse, and resistant to short term stresses such as drought and short periods of heavy stocking. The well-developed root systems support resiliency when allowed adequate recovery periods between grazing events. When exposed to long-term or frequent over-grazing events without adequate rest, this plant community will degrade.Dominant plant species
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sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
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switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
Figure 8. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7501 , Central Loess Plains, warm season dominant. Native warm-season dominant, MLRA 75.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 7 21 33 18 8 6 3 1 0 Community 1.2
Degraded Native Grass CommunitySand bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, prairie sandreed, and other desirable species lose productive capacity through loss of vigor and reproductive potential. Forb diversity is reduced. Periodic flooding and a fluctuating water table on this site help to sustain the tall grasses in the plant community. However, midgrasses such as western wheatgrass, sideoats grama, and various sedges will increase to become the dominant species.
This community phase signals a significant loss of production. This is due to continuous season-long grazing with inadequate recovery periods. Grazing-evasive warm-season grasses and cool-season grasses increase. The composition of the forb component remains diverse, but the potential for encroachment by invasive woody species becomes more likely, due to fewer deep rooted species and a reduced fuel load to carry fire.
While this plant community is less productive and less diverse than the representative plant community, it remains sustainable in regard to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.Dominant plant species
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western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
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sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
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sedge (Carex), other herbaceous
Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7501 , Central Loess Plains, warm season dominant. Native warm-season dominant, MLRA 75.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 7 21 33 18 8 6 3 1 0 Community 1.3
At-Risk Native Grass CommunityIn this plant community, the more palatable warm-season tallgrasses have been reduced to remnant populations by continued defoliation during their critical growth periods. Grazing-evasive warm-season grasses and cool-season grasses increase significantly. Blue grama, western wheatgrass, and sand dropseed are the dominant warm-season grasses. Kentucky bluegrass encroachment also occurs on flatter slopes.
Soil health is affected by reduced efficiency in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles as a result of decreases in plant litter and rooting depths. Total annual vegetative production declines significantly. Without a management change, this community is at-risk to degrade to the Native/Invaded Grass State.Dominant plant species
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sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass
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western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
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blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
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sedge (Carex), other herbaceous
Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7502 , Central Loess Plains, warm season at risk. Native warm-season at risk, reduced tall, warm-season grasses with increased cool-season grasses, MLRA 75.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 10 21 26 18 10 8 3 1 0 Community 1.4
Excessive Litter CommunityThe Excessive Litter Community describes the response of the community to the removal of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire. As the undisturbed duff layer deepens, infiltration of the precipitation is interrupted and evaporation increases significantly, simulating drought-like conditions.
Community 1.5
Ephemeral Forb CommunityThis community describes the flush of forbs that occurs in response to a major disturbance, or combination of disturbances. Growing season wildfire followed by hail, extreme prolonged drought, or extreme defoliation by herbivores are all examples of these disturbances. The native warm-season grasses reestablish dominance within a few years of the event.
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2A shift from the Reference Community to the Degraded Native Grass Community occurs with continuous season-long grazing and inadequate recovery periods during the growing season.
Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.4Prolonged interruption of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will result in conversion from this community to the Excessive Litter Community.
Pathway 1.1C
Community 1.1 to 1.5A high-impact disturbance event or combination of events causing excessive defoliation of the vegetation, i.e., a growing season wildfire followed by a significant hailstorm, or a prolonged intensive grazing event or long-term drought, etc.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1A shift from the Degraded Native Grass Community toward the Reference Community can be achieved through prescribed grazing. Applying grazing pressure during the growth period of the undesirable cool-season grasses and allowing rest during the warm-season growing season favors our desired species. This grazing regime will enable the deeply rooted warm-season tallgrasses to outcompete the shallow rooted grazing evasive warm-season grasses and the cool-season grasses. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.
Conservation practices
Access Control Prescribed Grazing Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3Maintaining continuous season-long grazing with inadequate recovery periods during the growing season further degrades the site to the At-Risk Native Grass Community.
Pathway 1.2C
Community 1.2 to 1.4Prolonged interruption of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will result in conversion from this community to the Excessive Litter Community.
Pathway 1.2D
Community 1.2 to 1.5A high-impact disturbance event, or combination of events causing excessive defoliation of the vegetation, i.e., a growing season wildfire followed by a significant hailstorm, or a prolonged intensive grazing event, or long-term drought, etc.
Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2Reversing the downward trend to the previous community can be achieved with prescribed grazing early and late in the growing season to reduce undesirable cool-season grasses. Targeting the peak growth period of cool-season grasses with high intensity grazing events followed by rest will allow the native warm-season tallgrasses to rejuvenate. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.
Conservation practices
Access Control Prescribed Grazing Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.4Interruption of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will result in conversion from this community to the Excessive Litter Community.
Pathway 1.3C
Community 1.3 to 1.5A high-impact disturbance event, or combination of events causing excessive defoliation of the vegetation, i.e., a growing season wildfire followed by a significant hailstorm, or a prolonged intensive grazing event, or long-term drought, etc.
Pathway 1.4A
Community 1.4 to 1.1Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation to return to the previous community.
Pathway 1.4B
Community 1.4 to 1.2Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation to return to the previous community.
Pathway 1.4C
Community 1.4 to 1.3Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation to return to the previous community.
Pathway 1.4D
Community 1.4 to 1.5A high-impact disturbance event, or combination of events causing excessive defoliation of the vegetation, i.e., a growing season wildfire followed by a significant hailstorm, or a prolonged intensive grazing event, or long-term drought, etc.
Pathway 1.5A
Community 1.5 to 1.1Restoration occurs naturally once the disturbance event has subsided. Allowing growing season rest will accelerate the recovery.
Pathway 1.5B
Community 1.5 to 1.2Restoration occurs naturally once the disturbance event has subsided. Allowing growing season rest will accelerate the recovery.
Pathway 1.5C
Community 1.5 to 1.3Restoration occurs naturally once the disturbance event has subsided. Allowing growing season rest will accelerate the recovery.
State 2
Native/Invaded Grass StateThis state has been degraded from the Reference State and much of the native warm-season grass community has been replaced by less desirable plants. The loss of warm-season tall- and midgrasses has negatively impacted energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration is reduced due to the shallow root system and rapid runoff characteristics of the grazing-evasive plant communities.
The Native Evaders/Invaded Grass and the Smooth Brome Communities are the components of the Native/Invaded Grass State.Dominant plant species
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composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
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Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
Community 2.1
Native Evaders/Invaded Grass CommunityThis plant community represents a shift from the Reference State across a plant community threshold. With continued grazing pressure, Kentucky bluegrass, and composite dropseed will become the dominant plant species, with only trace remnants of the more palatable warm-season midgrasses such as sideoats grama and little bluestem. Composite dropseed is a grazing-evasive warm-season midgrass with low palatability. Continuous and heavy grazing pressure will maintain this plant community in a sod-bound condition. Forb richness and diversity has decreased. With the decline and loss of deeper penetrating root systems, a compacted layer may form in the soil profile below the more shallow replacement root systems.
Grazing management practices that allow for adequate periods of recovery between grazing events will favor warm-season tall- and midgrasses. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate the restoration process.Dominant plant species
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composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
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Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7503 , Central Loess Plains, warm season/cool season co-dominant. Native warm-season plant community encroached with cool-season grasses, MLRA 75.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 9 27 25 12 10 10 3 1 0 Community 2.2
Smooth Brome CommunityThis plant community contains predominately smooth brome but also contains some native warm-season grass remnants. Production of plant communities dominated by smooth brome is highly variable, depending upon the percentages of composition present and outside inputs such as fertilizer and weed control.
Dominant plant species
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7504 , Central Loess Plains, cool season dominant, warm season remnants. Cool season, smooth brome with native warm season remnants, MLRA 75.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 2 13 29 19 7 10 13 6 1 0 Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2This community will be converted to a Smooth Bromegrass Community through the following practices: introduced grass seeding, excessive warm season grazing, inadequate warm season rest, multi season haying and nitrogen fertilizing in spring and/or fall.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1Restoration can be achieved by herbicide treatment and reseeding. If adequate native remnants are present, appropriately timed prescribed fire and a follow-up prescribed grazing program may achieve the desired results.
State 3
Sod-busted StateThis threshold is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. If farming operations are suspended, the site can be abandoned, which will result in the Natural Reclamation Community, or be reseeded to a desired perennial forage mixture, which is described as the Reseeded Grass Community. Permanent alterations of the soil community and the hydrological cycle make restoration to the original native Reference State extremely difficult, if not impossible. Formation of a compacted plow pan in the soil profile is likely.
Community 3.1
Reseeded Grass CommunityThis plant community does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending on the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, nitrogen fertilizer use, and past grazing management. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will be needed to maintain productivity and desirable species.
Native range and seeded grasslands are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on precipitation, management and grass species seeded.Community 3.2
Natural Reclamation CommunityThis plant community consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter/carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plow-pan or compacted layer can be formed which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. Erosion is a concern.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.State 4
Invaded Woody StateOnce the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding 5 feet, the threshold is crossed to the Invaded Woody State. The primary coniferous interloper is eastern redcedar. Honeylocust and green ash number among the deciduous native trees, along with several exotic introduced species, including Siberian elm. These woody species are encroaching due to lack of prescribed fire and other brush management practices. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native warm-season grasses, degraded forage productivity and reduced soil quality. This state consists of the Eastern Redcedar/ Honeylocust Community.
Dominant plant species
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eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
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green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
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honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), tree
Community 4.1
Eastern Redcedar/Honeylocust CommunityThis community has at least a 15 percent canopy of Eastern redcedar. Honeylocust encroachment may occur as you move east within the MLRA, when brush management and prescribed burning is absent over an extended period of time. Generally, this site is very conducive to eastern redcedar seedling invasion especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern redcedars will eventually dominate the site, resulting in a closed canopy, reduced forage production and limited livestock grazing and wildlife habitat value.
Eastern redcedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six foot tall or less and fine fuel production is over 1,500 pounds per acre. Trees of all heights can be controlled with the use of specifically adapted preparation, and ignition and holding techniques. Mechanical removal followed by a chemical treatment on stumps is effective on honeylocust and other root sprouting species.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE7505 , Central Loess Plains, woody encroachment. Woody plant encroachment with warm- and cool-season grasses MLRA 75.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 3 8 12 20 25 14 5 8 4 1 0 Transition T1A
State 1 to 2Heavy grazing without adequate recovery periods will cause this state to lose a significant proportion of warm-season, tall- and midgrass species and cross a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State. Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root matting presence of sod-forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper penetrating root systems, soil structure and biological integrity are catastrophically degraded to the point that recovery is unlikely. Once this occurs, it is highly unlikely that grazing management alone will return the community to the Reference State.
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3The Reference State is significantly altered by mechanical tillage to allow the site to be placed into production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T1C
State 1 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and the planting of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause this state to shift to the Invaded Woody State.
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3The state is significantly altered by mechanical tillage to allow the site to be placed into production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T2B
State 2 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and the planting of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause this state to shift to the Invaded Woody State.
Transition T3A
State 3 to 4Disruption of the natural fire regime and the planting of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause this state to shift to the Invaded Woody State.
Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move this plant community toward one of the herbaceous dominated plant communities. The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover will initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush or trees such as honeylocust or Siberian elm are present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to this state.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move this plant community toward one of the herbaceous dominated plant communities. The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover will initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush or trees such as honeylocust or Siberian elm are present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to this state.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Prescribed Grazing Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move this plant community toward one of the herbaceous dominated plant communities. The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover will initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush or trees such as honeylocust or Siberian elm are present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to this state.
Conservation practices
Brush Management Prescribed Burning Additional community tables
Table 5. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 6. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 7. Community 1.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 8. Community 1.4 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 9. Community 1.5 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 10. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 11. Community 2.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 12. Community 3.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 13. Community 3.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 14. Community 4.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Animal community
LIVESTOCK – GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. This site is well adapted to managed grazing by domestic livestock. Rangeland in this area may provide year-long forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. The predominance of herbaceous plants across all plant community phases best lends these sites to grazing but browsing livestock such as goats will utilize native and invasive forbs and brush. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage maybe lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep) requirements and supplementation based on a reliable forage analysis may be necessary.
A grazing management strategy that protects the resource, maintains or improves rangeland health, and is consistent with management objectives will include appropriate stocking rates based on the carrying capacity of the land. In addition to useable forage, stocking rates should consider ecological condition of the land, trend of the site, grazing history, season of use, stock density, kind and class of livestock, forage quality, and harvest efficiency based on plant preference. It should also consider site accessibility and distance to drinking water. Average annual production must be measured or estimated to properly assess useable forage production and carrying capacity.
If excessive defoliation or grazing distribution problems occur, reduced stocking rates are needed to maintain plant health and vigor. Year-to-year and season-to-season fluctuations in forage production are expected due to weather conditions. To avoid overuse of forage plants when conditions are unfavorable to forage production, timely adjustments to livestock number or in the length of grazing periods are needed.
WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
This ecological site is characterized by sandy soils that are nearly level to weakly hummocky and are usually associated with the sandy rivers and streams. These sites have historically been subject to frequent flooding, sorting, scouring, and redeposition. Therefore, vegetative composition can change quickly and frequently. As a result, virtually none of these sites have been cultivated. Since these areas are not farmed, they are often utilized for wintering areas by livestock, especially where trees are present. Overutilization by livestock tends to degrade terrestrial as well as aquatic wildlife habitat.
Historically these sites have supported a diversity of wildlife because of the mixture of forbs and grasses and the nearly steady supply of water. These forbs and grasses were utilized by a number of large mammals including deer, elk, and bison. Due to all landscape’s inherent heterogeneity, some areas were not grazed uniformly by these historic large herds of grazing animals. This type of grazing enhanced habitat for wildlife by creating a mosaic pattern, or patchiness, of vegetative structural diversity throughout the landscape. Wildlife native to the site depend on a plant community diverse in species and structure. This need is evident in the variability of known habitat requirements of grassland associated wildlife.
If cottonwood trees become established on these sites, the types of wildlife species using the area will shift from grassland species to woodland species. Striped skunks, opossums, porcupines, and white-tailed deer habitat will increase. Habitat also becomes more suitable for northern bobwhite quail and turkeys. In recent times cottonwood trees have begun dying off as a result of irrigation and a corresponding reduction in the water table. With the loss of water flows, very few new trees are able to replace them. These dead cottonwood trees have created ideal habitat for species that utilize dead “snags” such as northern flickers, red-headed woodpeckers, wood ducks, and raccoons.
The site's close proximity to permanent or seasonal water in streams generally meets the needs of wildlife requiring open water for drinking. Seasonal pools present during the spring offer breeding habitat for amphibians.
Periodic events such as prolonged drought, wildfire, disease, or high insect numbers will alter plant community diversity and structure and associated wildlife species.
REFERENCE PLANT COMMUNITY (1.1):
The high diversity of grasses and forbs in this community provides habitat for a diverse group of insects. Areas with high forb diversity will generally support more insects such as the leaf-hoppers important to young grassland nesting birds. Grasshoppers, associated with grasses, are a critical food source for birds in later stages of development. Plains garter snakes and northern water snakes are common reptiles on the site. Areas with high forb and insect populations coupled with nearby roost trees offer suitable brood habitat for wild turkeys. Reference Plant Communities with tall, native, warm-season bunchgrasses, and openings at ground level offer suitable northern bobwhite quail nesting habitat. Small mammals such as white-footed mice are common and will attract raptors such as red-tailed hawks, great-horned owls, and eagles if suitable perches are available. Small mammals also provide prey for coyotes and other predators.Hydrological functions
Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. The soils on this site are moderately deep to deep and range from well drained to excessively well drained.
Recreational uses
This site provides hunting for upland game species and white-tailed deer, along with hiking, photography, bird watching and. The wide varieties of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wood products
Firewood can be cut from this site. Eastern redcedar can be utilized for veneer and/or furniture. Cottonwood can be harvested for pallets.
Other products
None of significance.
Other information
Site Development and Testing Plan:
Future work is needed to validate the information in this Provisional Ecological Site Description. Additional data collection and evaluation may also be needed to develop this ESD to the Approved, then Correlated level. This includes field activities to collect low, medium and high intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of that data. Field reviews of the project plan should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists. A final field review, peer review, quality control, and quality assurance reviews of the ESD will be needed to produce the final document.Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from NRCS Soil Surveys, similar sites in adjacent MLRAs, and field observations from trained personnel.
Other references
High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. http://hpcc.unl.edu. Accessed 12/05/16.
Johnsgaard, P.A. 2001. “The Nature of Nebraska.” University of Nebraska Press.
LaGrange, T.G. 2015. Final Report submitted to EPA for the project entitled: Nebraska’s Wetland Condition Assessment: An Intensification Study in Support of the 2011 National Survey (CD# 97714601), and the related project entitled: Nebraska's Supplemental Clean Water Act §106 Funds, as Related to Participation in National Wetland Condition Assessment (I – 97726201). Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Lincoln.
Muhs, Daniel R., E. Bettis III, J. Aleinikoff, J. McGeehin, J. Beann, G. Skipp, B. Marshall, H. Roberts, W. Johnson, and R. Benton.
"Origin and paleoclimatic significance of late Quaternary loess in Nebraska: Evidence from stratigraphy, chronology, sedimentology, and geochemistry" (2008). USGS Staff -- Published Research. Paper 162. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usgsstaffpub/162. Accessed 12/05/16.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 2014. NRCS National Ecological Site Handbook.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 2011. NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Section 4.
Personal communications with professional ecologists and wildlife experts.
Rolfsmeier, S.B. and G. Steinauer. 2010. "Terrestrial Ecological Systems and Natural Communities of Nebraska", (version IV)
Nebraska Natural Heritage Program.
USDA, NRCS. National Water and Climate Center, Portland, OR. http://wcc.nrcs.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.
USDA, NRCS.1997. National Range and Pasture Handbook.
USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, Fort Collins, CO. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.
USDA, NRCS. 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. http://plants.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA.
USDA, NRCS. Soil Surveys from Gosper, Phelps, Kearney, Adams, Hamilton, Polk, York, Butler, Seward, Saline, Fillmore, Clay, Franklin, Webster, Nuckolls, Thayer and Jefferson Counties in Nebraska, and Republic and Washington Counties in Kansas.Contributors
Doug Whisenhunt
Nadine BishopApproval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 4/17/2025
Acknowledgments
My appreciation for the hard work and diligence of the members of the MLRA 75 soils team, local practitioners’ team, and technical team.
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Version V Authors: Jeff Nichols, Nadine Bishop Contact for lead author Kristin Dickinson, Acting State Range Management Specialist, kristin.dickinson@usda.gov Date 11/30/2024 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
-
Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
None. Water flow patterns are not expected on this site. -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None. Erosional pedestals and terracettes are not expected on this site. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is 5 percent or less. Multi-year drought can cause the amount of bare ground to increase to 10 percent with bare patches reaching 6 inches (15 cm) in diameter. Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), litter, standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae). -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. Wind scoured and/or depositional areas are not expected on this site. -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
None. Plant litter is distributed evenly throughout the site and litter movement is not expected. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability ratings should typically be 4 to 6. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
A-horizon is at least 8 inches (20 cm) thick. Soil color is grayish brown (10YR 5/2) when dry and dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) or very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) when moist. Soil structure is weak coarse granular to weak fine granular. See Official Soils Descriptions for additional details. The major soil series correlated to this site include Cass and Inavale. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Plant community composition of 70 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, 5 to 10 percent shrubs, and 0 to 2 percent trees will optimize infiltration on the site. The grass and grass-like portion is composed of perennial, native, warm-season, tallgrass; perennial, native, warm-season midgrass; perennial, native, warm-season shortgrass; native, perennial cool-season grass, and grass-likes. Infiltration can be adversely impacted by the invasion of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, tall fescue, and trees when present above 10 percent (subdominant designation). -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. No compaction layers are expected to occur on this site. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Dominant: Phase 1.1: 1. Perennial, native, warm-season, tallgrass: sand bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, prairie sandreed, composite dropseed Phase 1.2: 1. Perennial, native, warm-season, midgrass: little bluestem, sideoats grama, sand lovegrass, sand dropseed; 2. Perennial, native, cool-season grass: western wheatgrass, Canada wildrye, Scribner’s rosettegrass, prairie Junegrass; Phase 1.3: 1. Perennial, native, cool-season grass: western wheatgrass, Canada wildrye, Scribner’s rosettegrass; 2. Perennial, native, warm-season, midgrass: little bluestem, sideoats grama, sand dropseed;Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.1: 1. Perennial, native, warm-season, midgrass: little bluestem, sideoats grama, sand lovegrass, sand dropseed; Phase 1.2: 1. Grass-likes: sedges; 2. Perennial, native, warm-season, tallgrass: sand bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, prairie sandreed, composite dropseed Phase 1.3: 1. Perennial, native, warm-season, shortgrass: blue grama, buffalograss, hairy grama. 2.Grass-likes: sedgesOther:
Phase 1.1: 1. Native forbs (perennial and annual): species vary from location to location 2. Shrubs: Shrub species will vary from location to location 3. Grass-likes: sedges and other grass-likes 4.Perennial, native, warm- season, shortgrass: blue grama, buffalograss Minor - Phase 1.2: 1.Shrubs: Shrub species will vary from location to location; 2. Native forbs (perennial and annual): species vary from location to location; 3. Perennial, native, warm-season, shortgrass: blue grama, buffalograss Minor - Phase 1.3: 1. Shrubs: Shrub species will vary from location to location; 2. Perennial, native, warm-season, tallgrass; 3. Native forbs; 4. Deciduous trees: plains cottonwood Trace - Phase 1.1 1. Deciduous trees: plains cottonwood Trace - Phase 1.2 1. Deciduous trees: plains cottonwoodAdditional:
Functional/Structural Groups: The Reference Community (1.1) includes eight F/S Groups. These groups in order of abundance are perennial, native, warm-season, tallgrasses; perennial, native, warm-season, midgrasses; perennial, native, cool-season grasses; native forbs (perennial and annual); shrubs; grasslike; perennial, native, warm-season, short grasses; and deciduous trees. The Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) includes eight F/S groups. These groups in order of abundance are perennial, native, warm-season, midgrass, perennial, native, cool- season grass; grass-likes; perennial, native, warm-season tallgrass; shrubs; native forbs; perennial, native, warm-season, shortgrass; deciduous trees. The At-Risk Native Grass Community (1.3) contains 8 F/S groups. These groups in order of abundance are perennial, native, cool-season grass; perennial, native, warm-season, midgrass; perennial, native, warm-season shortgrass; grass-likes; shrubs, perennial, native, warm-season, tallgrass; native forbs; deciduous trees. -
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
A few (less than 3 percent) dead centers may occur in bunchgrasses. Shrubs may show some dead branches (less than 5 percent) as plants age. Plant mortality may increase following a multi-year drought, wildfire, and/or a combination of the two events to 10 to 15 percent. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter is expected to be 50 to 70 percent at a depth of 0.25 (0.65 cm) and evenly distributed throughout the site. -
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Production is shown in air-dry values. The Representative Value (RV) = 3,500 pounds per acre. Low production years = 3,000 pounds per acre. High production years = 4,500 pounds per acre. -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
No non-native invasive species are present. Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, Caucasian bluestem, tall fescue, eastern redcedar, honey locust, Siberian elm, leafy spurge, and sericea lespedeza are known invasives that have the potential to become dominant or co-dominant on the site. Consult the state noxious weed and state watch lists for potential invasive species on each ecological site. NOTE: Invasive plants (for the purposes of the IIRH protocol) are plant species that are typically not found on the ecological site or should only be in trace or minor categories under the natural disturbance regime and have the potential to become a dominant or codominant species on the site if their establishment and growth are not actively controlled by natural disturbances or management interventions. Species listed characterize degraded states AND have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species. -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to climatic conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.
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