Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site F062XC053SD
Low Elevation Dry Southern Hills Pine Forest
Last updated: 2/06/2025
Accessed: 07/08/2026
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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 062X–Black Hills
The Black Hills (MLRA 62) is a unique, low lying mountain range situated in the midst of a mixed short and mid-grass prairie. It is a true Island in the Plains, as it has geophysical and biological attributes that are unlike the surrounding area. The Black Hills have strong floristic ties to four of the North American biomes: Cordilleran (Rocky Mountain) Forest, Northern Coniferous Forest, Eastern Deciduous Forest, and Grasslands.
MLRA 62 is approximately 3,040 square miles in size; 74 percent is located in South Dakota, and 26 percent is in Wyoming. The towns of Lead, Deadwood, Hill City, and Custer, South Dakota, are in this area. U.S. Highways 16 and 385 cross the MLRA. The Black Hills National Forest, Custer State Park, Mt. Rushmore National Monument, Jewel Cave National Monument, and Wind Cave National Park are located in this MLRA.
This area forms the core of the Black Hills and the Bear Lodge Mountains where the elevation ranges between 3,600 to 6,565 feet, however, Black Elk Peak (Harney Peak) rises to 7,242 feet. Slopes range from moderately sloping on some of the high plateaus to very steeply sloping along drainageways and on peaks and ridges. Narrow valleys generally are gently sloping to strongly sloping.
The Black Hills uplift is the product of the Laramide mountain-building episodes that produced most of the ranges in the Rocky Mountains. Uplift began near the end of the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago and ended by 35 million years ago (Froiland 1999). The core of the Black Hills is a plutonic mass of granite with steeply dipping metamorphic rocks, primarily slate and schist, which directly surrounds the granite core. A plateau of Mississippian limestone surrounds the igneous and metamorphic rock core. The Madison limestone is broken around the outer edges of the uplifted area. The Permian Minnekahta limestone forms the outermost boundary of the area. Many other tilted sandstone, shale, and limestone units are exposed like a bathtub ring inside the steeply dipping Madison limestone.
The dominant soil orders in this MLRA are Alfisols (forest soils) and Mollisols (grassland soils). The soils in the area have a frigid or cryic soil temperature regime, a udic or ustic soil moisture regime, and mixed, micaceous, or smectitic mineralogy. They are shallow to very deep, generally well drained, and loamy in texture.
The Black Hills MLRA supports open to dense forest vegetation. Ponderosa pine is the dominant species across the Black Hills. White spruce grows at the higher elevations and along the major drainageways. Bur oak is found intermixed with pine in the northern and eastern fringes of the Black Hills, and Rocky Mountain Juniper is most common in the southern portion of the Black Hills. Aspen is of minor extent throughout the Black Hills area. Roughleaf ricegrass, slender wheatgrass, bearded wheatgrass, poverty oatgrass, Richardson’s needlegrass, and mountain ricegrass are the most common native grasses under open forest stands. The most common native shrubs are common snowberry, bearberry, common juniper, Oregon grape, and Saskatoon serviceberry.
MLRA 62 land ownership is approximately 47 percent private and 53 percent federal. Rangeland and forestland are split almost equally between private and federal ownership (47 percent each). Minor areas of land are privately owned cropland and urban development. The forestland in this area is used mainly for timber production, recreation, and grazing.
The major resource concerns are soil erosion and surface compaction caused by logging, mining, wildfires, grazing, and urban expansion. The quality of ground and surface water is another concern, especially in the northern part of the Black Hills. The primary cause is contamination from mine waste and septic systems in areas of rural development and urban expansion (USDA-NRCS, 2006: Ag Handbook 296).LRU notes
For development of ecological sites, MLRA 62 is divided into three Land Resource Units (LRU’s) or physiographic zones (A, B, C, and Y). Each LRU has a set of ecological sites that represents these zones.
The LRU is identified in the Ecological Site ID: R062XY000SD; “062X” identifies the MLRA, the next letter “Y” identifies the LRU. Note: The organization of Ecological Site ID’s will likely change in the future.
LRU-A includes the northern Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains (22-30” PZ); LRU-B includes the high elevation central core of the Black Hills (25-35” PZ); and LRU-C includes the southern portion of the Black Hills (17-21” PZ).
The Forest ecological sites are representative of sites in the Black Hills, Bear Lodge Mountains (MLRA-62), and the surrounding Dakota Hogback (MLRA-61). These sites are separated by elevation, soil temperature regimes, and slope.
The Low Mountain area includes all of the Black Hills, Bear Lodge Mountains, and Dakota Hogback below 6,200 feet in elevation (LRU’s A and C). The soils in this area have a frigid soil temperature regime.
The High Mountain area includes all of the Black Hills above 6,200 feet elevation (LRU-B). The soils in this area have a cryic soil temperature regime.Classification relationships
USDA Land Resource Region G—Western Great Plains Range and Irrigated Region:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 62—Black Hills
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 61—Black Hills Foot Slopes
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Level IV Ecoregions of the Conterminous United States:
Black Hills Foothills—17a
Black Hills Plateau—17b
Black Hills Core Highlands—17c
USDA Forest Service Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of the Conterminous United States:
Black Hills Coniferous Forest Province—M334:
Black Hills Section—334A
Black Hills Foothills Subsection—M334Aa
Black Hills Limestone Plateau-Core Highlands Subsection—M334AbEcological site concept
Occurring throughout the Black Hills, Ponderosa Pine is the dominant species for most of the area occurring across a variety of landforms and soils. The central concept of this ecological site focuses on dividing the region into three LRU’s. This ecological site encompasses the lower southern portion of the MLRA, LRU C, reaching from approximately 3200-6200 feet elevation across all slopes in the area. In this region, the lower elevations are dryer and warmer conditions than in most of the surrounding hills. These conditions allow for a mix of warm season grasses to dominate the understory, with larger more spread-out ponderosa pine, along with more frequent fire return intervals.
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree (1) Pinus ponderosa
(2) Juniperus scopulorumShrub (1) Rosa woodsii
(2) Prunus virginianaHerbaceous (1) Schizachyrium scoparium
(2) Andropogon gerardiiPhysiographic features
This ecological site occurs across mountain landscapes with varying landforms including hills and hillslopes. It occurs on toe-slopes, backslopes, shoulders and summits. Often with a rolling topography, this ecological site encompasses most of the area in the region ranging in elevation from 3,200-6,200 feet across all slopes.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) Hills > Hillslope
(2) Hills > Hillside
Runoff class Low to high Flooding frequency None Ponding frequency None Elevation 3200 – 6200 ft Slope 0 – 15 % Ponding depth 0 in Water table depth 80 – 0 in Aspect Aspect is not a significant factor Climatic features
MLRA 62 is in a microclimate caused by the influence of increased elevation which leads to increased precipitation, moderate air temperature, and lower wind velocities compared to the surrounding Great Plains. In general, the Black Hills climate is a continental type, cold in the winter and hot in the summer.
Annual precipitation typically increases from lower to higher elevations, and decreases from west to east, and from north to south. Most of the rainfall occurs as frontal storms early in the growing season, in May and June. Some high-intensity, convective thunderstorms occur in July and August. Precipitation in the winter occurs mostly as snow, amounting to 20 to 40 percent of the annual precipitation.
Growth of cool-season plants begins in April, slowing or ceasing growth by mid-August. Warm-season plants begin growth in May and continue to mid-September. Regrowth of cool-season plants may occur in September and October, depending upon soil moisture availability.Table 3 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 90-110 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) 110-130 days Precipitation total (characteristic range) 20-20 in Frost-free period (actual range) 70-120 days Freeze-free period (actual range) 110-140 days Precipitation total (actual range) 20-20 in Frost-free period (average) 100 days Freeze-free period (average) 120 days Precipitation total (average) 20 in Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 1. Monthly precipitation range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 2. Monthly minimum temperature range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 3. Monthly maximum temperature range
BarLineFigure 4. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 5. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 6 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) HOT SPRINGS [USC00394007], Hot Springs, SD
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(2) WIND CAVE [USC00399347], Buffalo Gap, SD
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(3) EDGEMONT 23 NNW [USC00392565], Custer, SD
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(4) CUSTER [USC00392087], Custer, SD
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(5) MT RUSHMORE NATL MEM [USC00395870], Keystone, SD
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(6) HILL CITY [USC00393868], Hill City, SD
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(7) RAPID CITY 4NW [USC00396947], Rapid City, SD
">Influencing water features
There are no water features associated with this site.
Wetland description
Not Applicable.
Soil features
This site is represented by the Vanocker(dry), Sawdust, Citadel(dry), Hickock(dry), Virkula(dry), Roubaix(dry), Buska(dry), and Pactola(dry) soils. Soils in this region that were historically forest often show evidence of an “E” eluviated horizon from decades of eluviation of acidic materials from needle and leaf litter. The "E" horizon may be lacking development in general, especially in areas where soils are more shallow or rocky. The soils in this ecological site are of a Udic or Ustic moisture regime, and a Frigid temperature regime.
More information regarding the soil is available in soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for details specific to your area of interest or go online to access USDA’s Web Soil Survey.Table 4. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Alluvium – igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock
(2) Colluvium – igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock
(3) Residuum – limestone and sandstone
Surface texture (1) Silt loam
(2) Loam
(3) Cobbly fine sandy loam
(4) Channery loam
Drainage class Well drained Permeability class Very slow to rapid Depth to restrictive layer 20 – 80 in Soil depth 20 – 80 in Surface fragment cover <=3" 0 – 5 % Surface fragment cover >3" 0 – 5 % Available water capacity
(0-40in)1 – 8.5 in Calcium carbonate equivalent
(0-40in)0 – 40 % Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)0 – 2 mmhos/cm Sodium adsorption ratio
(0-40in)0 – 2 Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-40in)5.1 – 8.5 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(0-40in)0 – 65 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(0-40in)0 – 65 % Ecological dynamics
Dominated by ponderosa pine, the Low Elevation Dry Southern Hills Pine Forest ecological site occupies much of the territory of LRU C. There exists a historic reference state, a native/invaded state, and a managed state. Given the history of intensive use of the Black Hills and its forestry resources, much of the area today would be found in a managed state with few areas remaining in either the native or native/invaded states.
This ecological site is characterized by a highly variable uneven age structure canopy of ponderosa pine. The LRU is defined by the warmer dry climate. The herbaceous layer is highly diverse with bluestems, needlegrasses, yarrow, pasqueflower, pussytoes (Antennaria spp.), bluebell, timber oatgrass (Danthonia intermedia), and sedges.
Ponderosa pine is the dominant tree species in the Black Hills and tends to have dark colored bark (blackjacks) until it reaches 75 to 100 years of age, after which the bark progressively changes to a buff or orange color. Morphologically older trees are marked by the presence of thinning foliar and flat-topped crowns. Additional morphology includes larger lower branching with higher crown-based heights and furrowed or very smooth bark.
Historically spatial heterogeneity was present not only across the Black Hills but also within the smaller dense pine patches (Brown, 2006). This variation of structure consisted of a diverse landscape mosaic that varied from grasslands and stands of ponderosa pine forest with variation in forest structure due to topographically driven soils and microclimates. Resulting in variation of total tree density, tree group size, proportion of trees in groups versus single random trees, and openness.
Ponderosa pine is a fire-adapted species that is, mostly driven by frequent, low-intensity surface fires that consume small seedlings, prunes lower branches from larger trees, and reduces overall surface fuel loads. In this LRU longer and more frequent fire seasons are due to two prevailing factors: 1) increased springtime productivity of grasses, forbs, and shrubs, and 2) longer summer warm dry periods. The historical fire regime is characterized as one of low-severity surface fires with occasional (>100 years) patches (< 250 Ac) of single tree and small group torching. Overall, it is estimated that only 3.3 percent of the Black Hills landscape burned as crown fire during 22 landscape fire years between 1529 and 1893 (Brown, 2008). In the southern hills, frequent low-severity surface fires occurred between 10 and 12 years (Shepperd, Wayne D.; Battaglia, Michael A. 2002, Brown, 2008). Frequent surface fires maintained the ecotone between forest and grasslands by killing ponderosa pine seedlings and saplings before they could become established.
In addition to frequent and variable fire, pests, disease, and other natural disturbances played a role in the overall maintenance of diversity, structure, and density the Black Hills. The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) is an important driver of forest structure. The mountain pine beetle was first described in the Black Hills in 1901 by Andrew D. Hopkins and the first documented epidemic of bark beetles in the Black Hills occurred in 1895 (Graham et al. 2016). These beetles are native in the Black Hills and have cyclical life cycle and emergence, with a continuous endemic and less frequent epidemics in the Black Hills over the last 129 years (Graham et al. 2016). "Mountain pine beetle outbreaks in the Black Hills from 1894 through 2014 had a mean return interval of 20 years and a mean duration of 13 years (Graham et al. 2016)". In addition to the mountain pine beetle pine engraver (Ips pini) are also present and native to the Black Hills.
At a variable and localized scale additional disturbances include pine engraver beetles and armillaria root rot. Pine engraver beetles are a non-aggressive and breed in windthrown ponderosa pine trees, trees damaged by wind, ice storms, or other non-standing tree’s. Armillaria (Armillaria ostoyae) has been noted across soil types and locations within the Black Hills (Boldt and Van Deusen 1974; Holah1993; Lundquist 1991; Shepperd, Wayne D.; Battaglia, Michael A. 2002).
Studies have shown the current forest contains about the same basal area (ft2/ac) on average as the historic forest. The difference, however, is that the historic forest was dominated by fewer, but much larger trees, than those present today. This suggests that there has been a simplification in structure at stand to landscape scales, with increased tree density leading to fewer gaps and more even spacing and size distributions within groups (Brown, 2008).
Relative increases in tree density and simplification of structure have contributed to greater vertical and horizontal fuel continuity, and thus increased likelihood for incidence and extent of crown fires. More pole-sized trees (5 to 9 inch DBH) within stands also increases the likelihood of bark beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreaks. This is a concern in the Black Hills where pine beetle outbreaks have been a major disturbance agent during the 20th and early 21st centuries.
Due to the spread and establishment of non-native cool-season grasses and other anthropogenic disturbances in MLRA 62, the Reference Plant Community (1.1) is nearly non-existent.State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
T1A - Timber harvest designed to achieve forest management objectives T2A - Herbaceous weed control, possibly planting of pine seedling and/or seeding native herbaceous species, followed by long-term prescribed grazing and forest stand improvement. State 1 submodel, plant communities
1.1A - Infrequent (>100 years) mixed severity large patch (20-200 acres) disturbance. 1.1B - Time with no disturbance (60+ years) State 2 submodel, plant communities
2.1A - Timber harvest and invaded by or seeded to introduced grasses and clover 2.1B - This pathway may occur when timber is no longer a priority for a site, but prescribed fire is not utilized as a management technique on a re-occurring basis. 2.2A - Tree planting. 2.3A - Any timber harvest methods. 2.3B - Clearcut Timber Harvest State 1
Reference StateThe Reference State represents what is believed to show the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of the Low Elevation Northern Hills Forest ecological site prior to European settlement The reference state (1.0) is represented by a community dominated by ponderosa pine with bur oak and rocky mountain juniper. Rocky Mountain juniper will be further south transitioning to aspen north of highway 16 with bur oak being on the drier foothills. The shrub component is diverse, and includes rose, chokecherry, serviceberry, juniper (Juniperus spp.), buffaloberry, mountain ninebark, currants, snowberry. The herbaceous understory consists of diverse mix of grasses, many of which are warm season, including little bluestem, big bluestem, oatgrass, needlegrass and upland sedges. Forbs are common and diverse.
Structural variation within this reference state is driven by local hydrology and plant available precipitation. The primary elements of structure that are affected include: 1) variably sized perennial openings and transitional grass, forb, shrub interspaces, where natural regeneration occurs. 2) variably sized, mostly even-aged tree groups and single random trees with a balance of age classes (by trees/acre).
Heterogeneity at the landscape level (100-1000 acres) of stands or patches of the above patterns is largely dictated by a combination of local hydrology and plant available precipitation that represent productivity gradients and resulting disturbance regimes (namely frequent fire or mixed severity over time) that yield variation in stand/patch size. Site gradients from less to more productive demonstrate the following variation: 1) less productive sites typically comprised of shallow soils, ridgetops, sun exposed slopes, head slopes having lower overall tree densities, higher proportion of single random trees, and fewer trees per group. With the caveat that when surface fuels are unable to carry frequent fire. 2) more productive sites comprised of deeper soils, gullies, swales, sheltered slopes, and toe slopes having higher overall tree densities with a higher proportion of trees in groups that tend to be larger. The caveat to this latter point being that when surface vegetation is productive so too becomes fire severity to regeneration.
Variation of type, size, and frequency of disturbances result contribute to dynamic stand maintenance over time. This dynamic is result of a continuous layer of extensive and frequent low severity disturbance to infrequent and more localized mixed severity disturbances. Most notable of this layered dynamic are the mixed severity disturbances where small patch (1-20) vs large patch (20-200 acres) disturbances (fire, insects, wind, ice storms) occur. This short-term maintenance and longer-term mixed severity disturbance supports historical ponderosa pine stands that are arranged such that there were diverse groups of openings, clumps, and individual trees with variable diameters at breast height (DBH) and variable amounts of trees per acre (TPA).
Due to the pervasiveness of non-native cool- season grasses, timber management and long-term fire suppression in the region, the true Reference State (1.0) is nearly non-existent.Dominant plant species
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ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
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Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), shrub
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chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
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common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), shrub
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
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oatgrass (Danthonia), grass
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sedge (Carex), grass
Community 1.1
Reference CommunityThis community evolved with periodic severe drought, episodic insect and disease outbreaks, low-intensity surface and small patch mixed severity fires (1-20 acres) with a return interval of 10 to 13 years. Severe weather events including hailstorms, tornados, and microbursts would also contribute to forest structure. Light to moderate levels of wildlife browsing and grazing also occurred on this site prior to European-American settlement.
The expected forest canopy cover is less than 30% with approximately 136 TPA around 11 inches DBH. The spatial arrangement of ponderosa pine consists of 48% groupings, 4% individual trees, and 47% openings.
The dominant grasses and grass-like species include little bluestem, big bluestem, oatgrasses, needlegrasses, and sedges. The dominant shrubs include western serviceberry and chokecherry. Forbs are common and diverse.
This plant community is diverse, stable, productive, and is well adapted to the Low Elevation Black Hills. Community dynamics, nutrient cycle, water cycle, and energy flow are functioning properly. Plant litter is properly distributed with very little movement offsite, and natural plant mortality is very low. This is a sustainable plant community in terms of soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
This community self sustains itself with very frequent low severity disturbance and moderately frequent mixed severity small patch disturbance (1-20 acres).Dominant plant species
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ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
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serviceberry (Amelanchier), shrub
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chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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needlegrass (Nassella), grass
Figure 7. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6211 , Black Hills, heavy conifer canopy. Mature ponderosa pine overstory.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 1 3 7 11 24 27 12 5 4 3 2 1 Community 1.2
Post Large Patch Disturbance CommunityVery open, scattered large ponderosa pine trees and seedlings with a component of quaking aspen seedings in the wetter or cooler areas.
This community evolved with rare mixed severity large mixed severity disturbances (20-200 acres) at a greater 100-year interval. This disturbance includes fire, insect outbreaks and severe weather events that include hailstorms, tornados, and microbursts. Light to moderate levels of wildlife browsing and grazing also occurred on this site prior to European-American settlement.
The ponderosa pine occupies very open spacings, with scattered large trees and seedlings arranged in 12% groups, 6% individual tree’s and 82% openings.
The tree overstory canopy is very open and scattered. The dominant grasses and grass-like species include little bluestem, big bluestem, oatgrasses, needlegrasses, and sedges. The dominant shrubs include western serviceberry and chokecherry. Forbs are common and diverse..
The dominant tree species on this site is ponderosa pine with a diameter at breast height (DBH) ranging from 9 to 15 inches. Where this ecological site occurs north of Highway 16 quaking aspen can be scattered throughout the site.Dominant plant species
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ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
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serviceberry (Amelanchier), shrub
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chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
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little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
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needlegrass (Nassella), grass
Figure 8. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6211 , Black Hills, heavy conifer canopy. Mature ponderosa pine overstory.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 1 3 7 11 24 27 12 5 4 3 2 1 Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2This transition between communities is a result of infrequent (>100 years) mixed severity large patch (20-200 acres) disturbance. This disturbance is often in the form of mixed severity fire with acres torching crown fire or epidemic Mountain Pine Beetle outbreaks. Severe weather events hailstorms, heavy snow fall, ice storms, tornados, and microbursts can also cause large scale tree mortality leading to this transition.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Forest Stand Improvement Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.2 to 1.1Time with no disturbance (60+ years) allowing for regeneration to become established and grow.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Burning Forest Stand Improvement State 2
Managed StateThe Managed State is largely the result of historic early European-American settlement of the Black Hills region. Large tracts which were logged free of regulatory restraints-prior to establishment of the Forest Reserve in 1897- were commercially clearcut and practically stripped of all trees large enough to yield a mine timber a railroad tie. (Boldt and Van Deusen 1974). Between the mid-1870s to 1890s, the Homestake Mining Company (and their half dozen subsidiary companies) alone cut something upwards of 6 million board feet of timber in the Black Hills. In some areas, this ecological site, was clear-cut for timber, then converted for use as ranch and farmsteads.
In other cases, the pine overstory was lost to high- intensity fire events followed by settlement. The cleared areas were often heavily grazed to supply beef and mutton for mining and logging communities. In later years these sites were often seeded to introduced grasses and clover to increase forage quality or farmed for grain crop production. In many cases the shift in land use from forest to livestock, forage, and crop production remains. Those areas that are not under intensive management resist transitioning back to a forest plant community, even though the soils still exhibit forest attributes.
In yet other areas, given the erodible soils, the forest service classified some lands as non-harvestable timber. These area's have not been harvested or managed, buck rather lack natural disturbance since the introduction of modern fire suppression.
The dominant plants associated with this state are introduced sod-forming grasses, introduced legumes, and weedy forbs. This state is very resistant to change through management alone.Dominant plant species
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ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
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smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
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Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
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redtop (Agrostis gigantea), grass
Community 2.1
Managed Timber ForestThis plant community is a result of forest activities focused on timber management. Virtually all of the Black Hills unreserved and operable forest acres have been cut over at least once; many acres have received multiple partial cuts. (Boldt and Van Deusen 1974). Current structure is based on the management or silvicultural system that was implemented by forestry professionals. There are a variety of forest harvest systems that have been utilized. These dictate the resulting and future forests structure of the site.
One of the primary forest structures resulting from forest management is a single story of evenly spaced trees. The resulting tree size might very from saplings to larger diameter trees. Although the spacing within the site will be fairly uniform different sites will have different spacings ranging from 10ft to 150ft between trees. Generally, the larger the tree the greater the spacing will be between trees. Another common resulting structure of forest management is a site with two separate canopy layers of trees.
One layer is commonly made up of lager diameter trees that have a spacing often wider then 30ft. The other layer is seedling and sapling sized trees, these trees may be at an even spacing between 10 and 16 feet apart or they may not be evenly spaced. There are other management objectives and silvicultural systems that result in different forest structures other than then ones previously listed. These structures usually include leaving trees of all sizes from seedling to large dimeter trees in varying amounts. The resulting spatial distribution is generally also uneven with areas of different forest densities.
Natural regeneration is the most common following timber management changing the forest structure and need for future management throughout time. Planting of trees maybe done in large fire burn areas,Dominant plant species
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ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
Community 2.2
Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses/Red Clover-Ox-eye Daisy-ThistleThis plant community is a result of the loss of the overstory ponderosa pine, either from high-intensity fire or timber harvest, followed by heavy continuous grazing, invasion of non-native cool- season grasses, and in some cases seeding to forage or crop species. It is characterized by a dominance of non-native cool- season grasses including timothy, smooth brome, Kentucky bluegrass, and redtop. Forbs will include red and white clover, ox- eye daisy, western yarrow, cinquefoil, and Canada thistle. Native plants, including ponderosa pine, have great difficulty becoming established in this plant community.
This site can be renovated through tillage and seeding of introduced forage species. The renovated plant community can remain productive through prescribed grazing with proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery following grazing event.Community 2.3
Fire ExclusionThis community arises as a result of fire exclusion from the ecosystem on the naturally occurring intervals that historically occurred.
In this system, fire return intervals historically ranged from 5-15 years, allowing low intensity surface fires to be the dominant disturbance. However, with modern fire suppression, many areas that historically would have seen fire very often are now excluded from this natural disturbance. As a result, many small pines survive and create thickets in this community that make larger areas susceptible to intense crown fires.
In addition, structure and composition of understory species may change as non-fire adapted species are able to grow more prolific during these long stretches without fire and/or allow invasive species to move in.Dominant plant species
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ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2During early European-American settlement of the Black Hills this ecological site, in some areas, was clear-cut for timber and then used for ranch and farmsteads. In other cases, the pine overstory was lost to high-intensity fire events followed by settlement. The cleared areas were often heavily grazed to supply beef and mutton for mining and logging communities. In later years these sites were either invaded by or seeded to introduced grasses and clover to increase forage quality or farmed for grain crops.
Pathway 2.1B
Community 2.1 to 2.3This pathway may occur when timber is no longer a priority for a site, but prescribed fire is not utilized as a management technique on a re-occurring basis.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1Tree planting.
Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1Any timber harvest methods.
Pathway 2.3B
Community 2.3 to 2.2Clearcut Timber Harvest
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2The transition to this community from the reference community is a result of timber harvest designed to achieve forest management objectives. These treatments will follow one of the silvicultural treatments below. Which will dictate the resulting structure and composition of the site. • Thinning: a treatment made to reduce stand density of trees primarily to improve growth, enhance forest health. o Thinning from above: removal of trees from dominant or codominant crown classes or canopy layers in order to favor those in lower crown classes or layers. o Thinning from below: removal of trees from lower crown classes or canopy layers in order to favor those in upper crown classes or layers. o Thin throughout the dimeters: the removal of trees to control stand spacing and favor desired trees, using a combination of thinning criteria without regard to crown position. o Variable density: the removal of trees that deliberately creates non-uniform conditions through a stand. • Even Age: regenerate and maintain a stand with a single age class. o Overstory Removal: The cutting of trees comprising an upper canopy layer in order to release advance regeneration in an understory. o Patch Cutting: removing all of the live trees from areas that are 2 acres in size or smaller. o Seed Tree: cutting of all trees except for a small number of widely dispersed trees retained for seed production and to produce a new age class. o Shelterwood: The cutting of most trees, leaving those needed to produce sufficient shade to establish a new age class. • Uneven Age: methods regenerate and maintain a multiage structure by removing some trees in all size classes either singly, or in small groups. o Group Selection: a group of trees are removed, and new age classes are established in openings created. o Single Tree Selection: Individual trees of all size classes are removed more or less uniformly throughout the stand, to promote growth of remaining trees and to provide space for regeneration
Transition T2A
State 2 to 1The Timber managed/Invaded Herbaceous sod state may be attempted to transition back to the Reference State (1.0) through herbaceous weed control, possibly planting of pine seedling and/or seeding native herbaceous species, followed by long-term prescribed grazing and forest stand improvement. This may take and extended period of time and in the end may not meet management objectives.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing Range Planting Forest Stand Improvement Herbaceous Weed Control Additional community tables
Table 5. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 6. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 7. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 8. Community 2.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 9. Community 2.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Animal community
Wildlife Interpretations:
The Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains of South Dakota and Wyoming are truly a forested island in a grassland sea. To regional Native Americans, they are ‘Paha Sapa” or “hills that are black”, and from a distance, the ponderosa pine-covered slopes do appear like black hills (Larson, 1999).
The Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains are located in the drier areas of a northern mixed-grass prairie ecosystem in which sagebrush steppes to the west yield to grassland steppes to the east. Prior to European settlement, MLRA 62 consisted of diverse grassland, shrubland, and forest habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional, instream wetlands and woody riparian corridors. These habitats provided critical life cycle components for many users. Many species of grassland birds, small mammals, reptiles and amphibians, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn were among the inhabitants adapted to this semi-arid region. Roaming herbivores, as well as several species of small mammals and insects, were the primary consumers linking the grassland resources to large predators, such as the gray wolf, mountain lion, and grizzly bear, and to smaller carnivores, such as the coyote, bobcat, fox, and raptors.
Ponderosa pine stands provide cavity nesting sites, nesting cover, escape cover, and den sites for a variety of species. Species that increase include elk, white-footed mice, bushy-tailed woodrat, black-billed magpie, Townsend’s solitaire, western meadowlark, Bohemian waxwing, dark-eyed junco, nuthatch, black-capped chickadees, brown thrasher, lark sparrow, crows, and white-crowned sparrow. Species such as meadow voles, spotted ground squirrel, thirteen-lined ground squirrel, northern grasshopper mice, and western harvest mice do not use this site. Grassland nesting songbirds will decline as pine cover increases. Raptors, such as the long-eared owl, increase.
Beaver inhabited surface waters associated with instream wetlands and woody riparian corridors occur along streams and drainages. Beaver occupation served as a mechanism to maintain water tables along flood plains and valley floors. During pre-European times, the extent of the wet land sites was likely much more wide-spread and persistent during dry periods, however excessive trapping and removal since that time have changed the hydrology and limited the extent of these sites while drying former mesic areas throughout the MLRA.
Grazing Interpretations:
Forage production of plant communities described in the Low Mountain Terraces and Benches ecological site is largely accessible for cattle grazing. Domestic sheep and goats would also utilize this ecological site throughout the growing season and into fall, but are not commonly produced in the Black Hills area. Plant communities utilized by livestock will require a complete resource inventory to document plant composition and production. Accurate estimates of carrying capacity should be calculated using vegetative clipping data, animal preference data, and actual historic stocking records.Recreational uses
This site provides opportunities for hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching, and botanizing. The wide variety of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wood products
The ponderosa pine produced in the Black Hills area are marketable for saw logs, heating fuel pellets, and other wood products. Management of this forest resource for watershed protection, grazing, wildlife, recreation, and timber harvest may be the most critical issues land managers and owners currently face.
Land management specialists stress the need to create and manage fire-tolerant forests on a landscape basis. They recommend fuel-mitigation treatments through grazing management, forest thinning, prescribed burning, and timber harvest management. Fire is especially damaging in the forest/urban interface and requires the expansion of defensible space around homes and buildings, and education on “Fire Wise” practices.Other products
Harvesting the seeds of native plants can provide additional income on this site.
Other information
Revision Notes: Provisional
This provisional ecological site description (ESD) has passed quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) to ensure that it meets the 2014 NESH standards for a provisional ecological site description. This site should not be considered an Approved ESD, as it is only the foundational site concepts and requires further data collection, site investigations, and final State-and-Transition Model (STM) reviews before it can be used as an Approved ESD meeting NESH standards.
Site Development and Testing Plan
Future work, as described in an official project plan, is necessary to validate the information in this provisional ecological site description. The plan will include field activities for low-, medium-, and high-intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of the data. Annual field reviews should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists. Final field review, peer review, quality control, and quality assurance reviews are required to produce the final document.Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. All inventory information and data records are compiled within the Rapid City, SD USDA-NRCS Shared “S” network drive.
Other references
Blodgett, J.T., K.K. Allen, K. Schotzko, and A. Dymerski. 2017. Aspen Health on National Forests in the Northern Rocky Mountain Region. Rep. RCSC-17-06. Golden, CO: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Health Protection. 19 p.
Brown, P. M. and C. Hull-Sieg. 1996. Fire History in Interior Ponderosa Pine Communities of the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA, Int. J. Wildland Fire 6(3): 97-105.
Brown, P. M. and C. Hull-Sieg. 1999. Historical variability in fire at the ponderosa pine – Northern Great Plains prairie ecotone, southeastern Black Hills, South Dakota, Ecoscience, 6(4):539-547.
Brown, P. M. and B. Cook. 2006. Early settlement forest structure in Black Hills ponderosa Pine Forest. Forest Ecology and Management 223 (2006) 284–290.
Brown, P. M., C. L. Wienk, A. J. Symstad. 2008. Fire and forest history at Mount Rushmore. Ecological Applications, 18(8):1984-1999
Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, and W.H McNab. 2007. Ecological subregions: Sections and subsections of the conterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76D. https://www.fs.fed.us/research/publications/misc/73326-wo-gtr-76d-cleland2007.pdf (accessed 31 January 2019).
Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deep-water habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-79/31.
DeBlander, L.T. 2002. Forest Resources of the Black Hills National Forest. Ogden, UT: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 16 p.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2018. EPA level III and level IV ecoregions of the conterminous United States. https://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- conterminous-united-states (accessed 26 April 2018).
Froiland Sven G. and Ronald R. Weedon. 1999. Natural History of the Black Hills and Badlands. Center for Western Studies, Augustana College, Sioux Falls SD.
Gartner F. R. and W. W. Thompson. 1972. Fire in the Black Hills forest-grass ecotone, South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Journal Series No 1115.
Hall, J. S.; Marriott, J. H.; Perot, J. K. 2002. Ecological Conservation in the Black Hills. Minneapolis, MN: The Nature Conservancy.
High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. 2018. http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/ (accessed 6 April 2018).
Hoffman, George R., Alexander, Robert R. 1987. Forest Vegetation of the Black Hills National Forest of South Dakota and Wyoming: a habitat type classification. Res. Pap. RM-276. USDA-USFS, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Larson, Gary E. and James R. Johnson. 1999. Plants of the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. South Dakota State University, College of Agriculture and Biological Sciences and Agriculture Experiment Station, Bulletin 732, Brookings, SD.
McIntosh, A. C. 1949. A botanical survey of the Black Hills of South Dakota. Black Hills Engineer. 28 (4): 3-75.
Parrish, J. B., D. J. Herman, D. J. Reyher, and F. R. Gartner. 1996. A Century of Change in the Black Hills and Riparian Ecosystems. Open Prairie: Bulletins 726, Agriculture Experiment Station, South Dakota State University. https://openprairie.sdstate.edu/agexperimentsta_bulletins/726
Shepperd, W. D. and M. A. Battaglia. 2002. Ecology, silviculture, and management of Black Hills ponderosa pine. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-97. Fort Collins, CO: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 112 p.
Severson, K.E. and J.F. Thilenius. 1976. Classification of quaking aspen stands in the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. U.S. Department of Agriculture, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Forest Service, Research Paper RM-166. 24p.
Toledo, D., M. Sanderson, K. Spaeth, J. Hendrickson, and J. Printz. 2014. Extent of Kentucky bluegrass and its effect on native plant species diversity and ecosystem services in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. Invasive Plant Science and Management. 7(4):543–522. Weed Science Society of America.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service. 2018. Black Hills Resilient Landscape Project, Final Environmental Impact Statement.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2020. Electronic field office technical guide. https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov (accessed 11 June 2020).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 1993. Electronic field office technical guide. https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov (accessed 11 June 2020).
Soil Survey Staff. 2019. Official soil series descriptions. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/home/?cid=nrcs142p2_053587 (accessed 16 June 2020).
Soil Survey Staff. 2019. Web Soil Survey. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx (accessed 11 June 2020).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. Agriculture Handbook 296. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_050898.pdf (accessed 27 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2014. National ecological site handbook, 1st ed. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcseprd1291232 (accessed 27 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2012. National engineering handbook, part 630. Hydrology chapters from e-Directives. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/viewerFS.aspx?hid=21422 (accessed 16 June 2020).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2018. Climate data. National Water and Climate Center. http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/ (accessed 2 December 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 1997. National range and pasture handbook, rev. 1, 2003. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1043055.pdf (accessed 7 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2019. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov (accessed 30 July 2019).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2014. Key to Soils Taxonomy. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/soils/survey/class/ (accessed 27 August 2020).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2019. PLANTS database. National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC. http://plants.usda.gov (accessed 16 June 2020).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2007. National engineering handbook, part 654. Rosgen Stream Classification Technique – Supplemental Materials, Technical Supplement 3E. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17833.wba (accessed 16 June 2020).
Walters, B.F., C.W. Woodall, R.J. Piva, M.A. Hatfield, G.M. Domke, and D.E. Haugen. 2013. Forest of the Black Hills National Forests 2011. Resource Bulletin NRS-83. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 36 p.
Wrage, K. J. 1994. The effects of ponderosa pine on soil moisture, precipitation, and understory vegetation in the Black Hills of South Dakota. 158 p. Thesis.Contributors
Rick L. Peterson, Rangeland Management Specialist- NRCS(Retired)
Mitch D. Faulkner, Rangeland Management Specialist- NRCS
Stan C. Boltz, Rangeland Management Specialist- NRCS
Ezra Hoffman, Ecological Site Specialist-NRCS
Laura Bosworth, State Forester- NRCS
Nancy Bayne, Silviculturist-USFS(Retired)
Kara Dunlap, Timber Program Manager- USFS
David Jalali, Soil Scientist, NRCS
Dan Brady, Soil Scientist, NRCS
Emily Helms, State Range Specialist, NRCSApproval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 2/06/2025
Acknowledgments
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Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Contact for lead author Date 07/08/2026 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
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Presence of water flow patterns:
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Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
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Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
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Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
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Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
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Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
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Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
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Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
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Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
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Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
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Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
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Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
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Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
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Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
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Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
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Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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