State 1
Reference

This state represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site prior to European influence. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included frequent fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing, coupled with weather events, dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. These factors likely caused the community to shift both spatially and temporally between three community phases.

Characteristics and indicators. (i.e. characteristics and indicators that can be used to distinguish this state from others). Because of changes in disturbances and other environmental factors (particularly the widespread occurrence of exotic species), the Reference State is considered to no longer exist.

Resilience management. (i.e. management strategies that will sustain a state and prevent a transition). If intact, the reference state should probably be managed with current disturbance regimes which have permitted the site to remain in reference condition as well as maintaining the quality and integrity of associated ecological sites. Maintenance of the reference condition is contingent upon a monitoring protocol to guide management.

Community 1.1
Big Bluestem-Indiangrass-Sideoats Grama/Forbs (Andropogon gerardii-Sorghastrum nutans-Bouteloua curtipendula/Forbs)

This Community Phase was historically the most dominant both temporally and spatially, with warm-season grasses dominating the community. The major grasses and sedges included big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, sideoats grama, little bluestem, prairie dropseed, porcupinegrass, and green needlegrass. Other associated grasses included needle and thread, western wheatgrass, slender wheatgrass, bearded wheatgrass, blue grama, and upland sedges.

Blazing star, common yarrow, purple prairie clover, blacksamson echinacea, silverleaf Indian breadroot, upright prairie coneflower, stiff sunflower, and stiff goldenrod were among the more common forbs. Common shrubs likely included leadplant, prairie rose, western snowberry, and prairie sagewort.

Annual production likely varied between about 1900-3900 pounds per acre with grasses and grass-likes, forbs, and shrubs contributing about 85%, 10%, and 5% respectively. This community represents the plant community phase upon which interpretations are primarily based and is described in the “Plant Community Composition and Group Annual Production” portion of this ecological site description.

Community 1.2
Blue Grama-Big Bluestem-Indiangrass/Forbs (Bouteloua gracilis-Andropogon gerardii-Sorghastrum nutans/Forbs)

This Community Phase occurred with long-term drought with or without heavy long-term grazing. This resulted in an increase in blue grama with a corresponding decrease in big bluestem, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama. The forb and shrub component of this community was similar to that of Community Phase 1.1 but some species (e.g. prairie sagewort) may have markedly increased.

Community 1.3
Shrubs/Porcupinegrass-Wheatgrasses/Sedges (Shrubs/Hesperostipa spartea-Elymus caninus, Elymus trachycaulus/Carex spp.)

This Community Phase occurred during periods of above average precipitation and/or reduced grazing or fire frequency. It may be characterized as a shrub dominated community consisting of a mixture of species such as western snowberry, prairie rose, leadplant, American plum, or chokecherry. Associated grasses often included porcupinegrass, bearded wheatgrass, and slender wheatgrass, along with upland sedges. Canada goldenrod, white heath aster, wavyleaf thistle, and common yarrow were likely among the common forbs.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Community Phase Pathway 1.1 to 1.2 occurred during long-term drought with or without heavy-long term grazing or other conditions that resulted in an increase in blue grama with a corresponding decrease in big bluestem, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Community Phase Pathway 1.1 to 1.3 occurred with above average precipitation and/or reduced grazing or fire frequency resulting in a marked increase in shrubs (e.g. western snowberry), porcupinegrass, wheatgrass, and sedges with a corresponding decrease in big bluestem, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Community Phase Pathway 1.2 to 1.1 occurred with the return to average growing conditions and reduced grazing pressure which led to a decrease in blue grama with a corresponding increase in big bluestem, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Community Phase Pathway 1.3 to 1.1 occurred upon return to average growing conditions and fire frequency with/without reduced grazing pressure. This would have resulted in a decrease in shrubs, porcupinegrass, wheatgrasses, and sedges with a corresponding increase in big bluestem, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama

State 2
Native/Invaded State

This state is similar to State 1: Reference State but has now been colonized by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass which are now present in small amounts. Although the state is still dominated by native grasses, an increase in these exotic cool-season grasses can be expected.

These exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State.

These exotic cool-season grasses have been particularly and consistently invasive under extended periods of no use and no fire. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 3: Invaded State should be expected.

Annual production of this state can be quite variable, in large part due to the amount of exotic cool-season grasses. Annual production may range from 1800-3800 pounds per acre.

Characteristics and indicators. The presence of trace amounts of exotic cool-season grasses indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2. The presence of exotic biennial or perennial leguminous forbs (i.e. sweet clover, black medic) may not, on their own, indicate a transition from State 1 to State 2 but may facilitate that transition.

Resilience management. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. Grazing management should be applied that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. This may include: (1) grazing when exotic cool-season grasses are actively growing and native cool-season grasses are dormant; (2) applying proper deferment periods allowing native grasses to recover and maintain or improve vigor; (3) adjusting overall grazing intensity to reduce excessive plant litter (above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 – see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet); (4) incorporating early heavy spring utilization which focuses grazing pressure on exotic cool-season grasses and reduces plant litter provided that livestock are moved when grazing selection shifts from exotic cool-season grasses to native grasses. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that maintains or enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. Prescribed burns should be applied as needed to adequately reduce/remove excessive plant litter and maintain the competitive advantage for native species. Timing of prescribed burns (spring vs. summer vs. fall) should be adjusted to account for differences in annual growing conditions and applied during windows of opportunity to best shift the competitive advantage to the native species.

Community 2.1
Big Bluestem-Indiangrass-Sideoats Grams/Forbs (Andropogon gerardii-Sorghastrum nutans-Bouteloua curtipendula/Forbs)

This Community Phase is very similar to Community Phase 1.1, but now has been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass.

Community 2.2
Blue Grama-Big Bluestem-Indiangrass/Forbs (Bouteloua gracilis- Andropogon gerardii-Sorghastrum nutans/Forbs)

This Community Phase is similar to Community Phase 1.2 but has now been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass. These exotics, however, are present in smaller amounts with the community still dominated by native grasses.

This community phase is often dispersed throughout a pasture in an overgrazed/undergrazed pattern, typically referred to as patch grazing. Some overgrazed areas will exhibit the impacts of heavy use, while the ungrazed areas will have a build-up of litter and increased plant decadence. This is a typical pattern found in properly stocked pastures grazed season long. As a result, Kentucky bluegrass tends to increase more in the undergrazed areas while the more grazing tolerant short statured species such as blue grama and sedges increase in the heavily grazed areas. If present, Kentucky bluegrass may increase under heavy grazing.

This Community Phase is approaching the threshold leading to a transition to State 3: Invaded State. As a result, it is an “at risk” community. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 3: Invaded State should be expected.

Community 2.3
Shrubs/Porcupinegrass-Wheatgrasses/Sedges (Shrubs/Hesperostipa spartea-Elymus caninus, Elymus trachycaulus/Carex spp.)

This Community Phase is similar to Community Phase 1.3 but has now been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass. These exotics, however, are present in smaller amounts with the community still dominated by native grasses.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Community Pathway 2.1 to 2.2 occurs with heavy season-long grazing with or without drought. Blue grama increases with a corresponding decrease in big bluestem, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.1 occurs with reduced grazing pressure and return to average precipitation. This results in an increase in big bluestem, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama with a corresponding decrease in blue grama.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3

Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.3 occurs during extended periods of no use or very light grazing with no fire resulting in an increase in mulch accumulation along with a marked increase in shrubs, forbs, and exotic cool-season grasses.

Pathway 2.3B
Community 2.3 to 2.1

Community Phase Pathway 2.3 to 2.1 occurs with the implementation of long-term prescribed grazing with prescribed burning which results in a reduction of the shrub component and corresponding increase in native grasses. Prescribed burning will likely require repeated treatments to complete the pathway because many of the shrubs (e.g. western snowberry) sprout profusely following one burn.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

Community Phase Pathway 2.3 to 2.2 occurs with prescribed grazing and prescribed burning. Prescribed grazing incorporates heavy early spring and/or late fall grazing cool-season exotic grasses when cool-season exotic grass is most vulnerable, shifting the competitive advantage to the remaining native species. Prescribed burning will likely require repeated treatments to complete the pathway in order to target exotic cool-season grass invasion and because many of the shrubs (e.g., western snowberry) sprout profusely following one burn.

State 3
Invaded State

This state is the result of invasion and dominance by the exotic cool-season grasses, commonly Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass. These exotic cool-season grasses can be quite invasive on the site and are particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. They also often form monotypic stands. As these exotic cool-season grasses increase, both forage quantity and quality become increasingly restricted to late spring and early summer due to the monotypic nature of the stand even though annual production may increase. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State. Common forbs often include white heath aster, goldenrod, common yarrow, and white sagebrush. Shrubs such as western snowberry and prairie rose, however, may increase. Once the state is well established, prescribed burning and grazing techniques have been largely ineffective in suppressing or eliminating these three species even though some short-term reductions may appear successful.

Annual production of this state may vary widely, in part due to variations in the extent of invasion by exotic cool-season grasses. However, annual production may be in the range of 1300-3700 pounds per acre.

Characteristics and indicators. This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.

Resilience management. Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g. western snowberry) populations.

Community 3.1
Exotic Grasses/Shrubs

This Community Phase is dominated by exotic, cool-season sodgrasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass, often with a reduced forb component. Excessive accumulation of mulch may also be present, particularly when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass. Common forbs and shrubs often include white heath aster, goldenrod, common yarrow, and white sagebrush. Shrubs such as western snowberry and prairie rose may increase.

Total production may be in the range of 3000 pounds per acre with over 60% of total production attributable to the exotic cool-season grasses. The longer this community phase exists, the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of Kentucky bluegrass or smooth brome are typically short-lived.

State 4
Go-Back State

This state is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T6A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this state is plant succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which may be noxious weeds needing control. Over time, the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass will likely predominate.

Characteristics and indicators. Tillage has destroyed the native plant community, altered soil structure and biology, reduced soil organic matter, and resulted in the formation of a tillage induced compacted layer which is restrictive to root growth. Noxious weeds, if present, will need to be managed.

Community 4.1
Annual/Pioneer Perennial /Exotics

This Community Phase is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T6A transitional pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this phase is secondary succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, including noxious weeds (e.g. Canada thistle) which may need control. Over time, the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass will likely predominate.

State 5
Wooded State

This state historically existed as small patches of trees and/or shrubs scattered across the site, where trees and shrubs could have encroached onto the site vegetatively (e.g. rhizomes, root sprouts) or provided a seed source for colonization of the site. Variations in fire frequency enabled woody plant species in some areas (i.e. period of infrequent fire) to grow large enough to escape the next fire event. As trees increased in size, canopy cover increased which altered micro-climate and reduced fine fuel amounts resulting in reduced fire intensity and frequency. This would have been the primary pathway under the historic disturbance regime and would have resulted in a mosaic pattern of small wooded patches interspersed within herbaceous plant community phases. A marked increase in non-use management and active fire suppression since European influence has enabled this state to expand and become more widespread.

Common woody species often include bur oak, green ash, and small patches of quaking aspen clones with an understory of smaller trees and shrubs, often including western snowberry, prairie rose, and chokecherry. An herbaceous component of smooth brome, wildrye, and/or Kentucky bluegrass is often present, particularly when the canopy is more open. Under more closed canopies, the herbaceous understory is predominantly shade tolerant sedges (e.g. Sprengel’s sedge).

Community 5.1
Green Ash-Bur Oak-Quaking Aspen (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa-Populus tremuloides)

This plant community phase is often characterized by a dominance of green ash, bur oak, and quaking aspen with lesser amounts of American plum, boxelder, and perhaps ironwood. Shrubs include chokecherry, prairie rose, and western snowberry. An herbaceous understory of sedges, wildrye, and assorted forbs may also be present. Regardless of how this community phase originated, the exotic cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass will generally be prominent components. As the trees mature and canopy cover increases, herbaceous production declines and shrubs/vines associated with mature woodlands may begin to occupy the understory.

State 6
Cropland State

Cropland State results from planting and production of annual crops. This plant community is most commonly associated with cropped fields. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of tillage induced compaction, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques..

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

This is the transition from the State 1: Reference State to the State 2: Native/Invaded State due to the introduction and establishment of exotic cool-season grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass. This transition was probably inevitable and corresponded to a decline in native warm-season and cool-season grasses. This transition may have been exacerbated by chronic season-long or heavy late season grazing. Complete rest from grazing and suppression of fire could also have hastened the transition. The threshold between states was crossed when Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, quackgrass, or other exotic species became established on the site.

Constraints to recovery.(i.e. variables or processes that preclude recovery of the former state). Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 5

This transition from State 1: Reference State to State 5: Wooded State occurred over extended periods of no use or very light grazing and no fire. Adjacent or nearby stands of woody species would have encroached onto the site vegetatively (e.g. rhizomes, root sprouts) or provided a seed source for colonization of the site. Common woody species often include western snowberry, chokecherry, American plum, prairie rose, and green ash.

Constraints to recovery.Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

This transition from the State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 3: Invaded State generally occurs with extended periods of no use or very light grazing, and no fire. Exotic cool-season grasses such as quackgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, and/or smooth brome become the dominant graminoids. Studies indicate that a threshold may exist in this transition when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30% of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40% of the plant community composition. Similar thresholds may exist for smooth brome and quackgrass. This transition may occur under a wide range of managerial conditions ranging from non-use and no fire to heavy season-long grazing (primarily Kentucky bluegrass).

Constraints to recovery.Variations in growing conditions (e.g. cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 5

This transition from the State 2: Native/Invaded to State 5: Wooded State generally occurs with extended periods of no use or very light grazing and no fire. It frequently occurs when the site is in close proximity to wooded areas where the woodland vegetation may encroach vegetatively and/or serve as a seed source for these species to colonize the site. The Wooded State has become more frequent following European settlement since the historic fire regime has been markedly reduced.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

This restoration pathway from the State 3: Invaded State 2: Native/Invaded State may be initiated with the implementation of long-term prescribed burning with prescribed grazing, assuming there is an adequate component of native grasses to respond to the treatments. Both prescribed grazing and prescribed burning are likely necessary to successfully initiate this restoration pathway, the success of which depends upon the presence of a remnant population of native grasses in Community Phase 3.1. That remnant population, however, may not be readily apparent without close inspection. The application of several prescribed burns may be needed at relatively short intervals in the early phases of this restoration process, in part because many of the shrubs (e.g. western snowberry) sprout profusely following one burn. Early season prescribed burns have been successful; however, fall burning may also be an effective technique. Common forb and shrub associates include northern bedstraw, common dandelion, Canada goldenrod, common yarrow, Canada thistle, western snowberry, and prairie rose. If the site is adjacent to woodlands, sprouts and seeds from the woodland species may begin to encroach and colonize the site.

Context dependence.Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species. Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g. September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded. Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation (e.g. “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses).

Transition T3A
State 3 to 5

This transition pathway from State 3: Invaded State to State 5: Wooded State may be initiated by extended periods of no use or very light grazing and no fire. This frequently occurs when the site is in close proximity to wooded areas where the woodland vegetation may encroach vegetatively and/or serve as a seed source for these species to colonize the site. It has also become more frequent following European settlement since the historic fire regime has been markedly reduced.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 2

The restoration pathway from State 4: Go-Back State to State 2: Native/Invaded State may result from a successful range planting with prescribed grazing and prescribed burning. Following planting, prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, haying, or use of herbicides will generally be necessary to achieve the desired result and control any noxious weeds. It may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. After establishment of the native plant species, prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources; management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses.

Context dependence.A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique. Management (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species. Adding non-native species can impact the above and below ground biota. Elevated soil nitrogen levels have been shown to benefit smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass more than some native grasses. As a result, fertilization, exotic legumes in the seeding mix, and other techniques that increase soil nitrogen may promote smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass invasion. The method or methods of herbaceous weed treatment will be site specific to each situation but, generally, the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control, or biological control (either singularly or in combination) in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 3

A failed range planting and/or secondary succession will lead to State 3: Invaded State.

Context dependence.Failed range plantings can result from many causes, both singularly and in combination, including: drought, poor seedbed preparation, improper seeding methods, seeded species not adapted to the site, insufficient weed control, herbicide carryover, poor seed quality (purity & germination), improper management.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 5

The transition from State 4: Go-Back State to State 5: Wooded State may occur with long-term non-use and no disturbances. This frequently occurs when the site is in close proximity to wooded areas where the woodland vegetation may encroach vegetatively and/or serve as a seed source for these species to colonize the site. It has also become more frequent following European settlement since the historic fire regime has been markedly reduced.

Context dependence.Long term non-use and no disturbances

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 2

Restoration Pathway from State 5: Wooded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State occurs with the implementation of prescribed burning and/or chemical/mechanical brush management followed by successful range planting. A combination of mechanical brush management, chemical treatment, and prescribed burning is necessary to remove the woody vegetation and prepare the seedbed for a successful range planting. It may be possible using selected plant materials and agronomic practices to approach something very near the functioning of State 2: Native/Invaded State. Application of chemical herbicides and the use of mechanical seeding methods using adapted varieties of the dominant native grasses are possible and can be successful. Following the establishment of the native plant species, prescribed grazing should include adequate recovery periods following each grazing event and stocking levels which match the available resources; management objectives must include the maintenance of those species, the associated reference state functions, and continued treatment of exotic grasses.

Context dependence.Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g. available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fuel type (herbaceous vs. shrub vs. tree), fine fuel amount and orientation (e.g. “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g. backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses). The method of brush management will be site specific but generally the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control, or biological control - either singularly or in combination - in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species. A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique. Management (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species. Adding non-native species can impact the above and below ground biota. Elevated soil nitrogen levels have been shown to benefit smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass more than some native grasses. As a result, fertilization, exotic legumes in the seeding mix, and other techniques that increase soil nitrogen may promote smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass invasion.

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 3

Restoration Pathway from State 5: Wooded State to State 3: Invaded State occurs with the implementation of prescribed burning and/or chemical/mechanical brush management followed by a failed range planting.

Context dependence.Failed range plantings can result from many causes, both singularly and in combination, including: drought, poor seedbed preparation, improper seeding methods, seeded species not adapted to the site, insufficient weed control, herbicide carryover, poor seed quality (purity & germination), improper management.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 4

This is the Transition from any plant community to State 4: Go-Back State. It is most commonly associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of range planting, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of tillage induced compaction, erosion, fertility, herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.