State 1
Reference

This state represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site prior to European settlement. Historically the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition were large fluctuations of the water table, water levels, soil saturation, and water chemistry (e.g. brackishness/ salinity/ alkalinity). Periodic fire and grazing by large herding ungulates were also historical disturbances that influenced this site but to a much lesser degree. Climate, spring snowmelt runoff and rainfall events, coupled with subsurface groundwater movement, combined with the timing of fires and grazing, dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability.

Presently, the main disturbances are climate, weather events, water level fluctuations, lack of fire, concentrated livestock grazing, and agronomic activities on adjacent ecological sites (e.g. tillage, fertilizer and herbicide use, drainage). However, during drawdown phases, livestock grazing and a lack of fire impact this ecological site.

The Reference State is composed of four community phases. These phases are largely due to weather and climate factors resulting in considerable fluctuations in water levels and water chemistry (e.g. brackishness). Brackishness, along with water depth, is also a major factor influencing vegetation of the site. Brackishness can be natural due to the type of hydrology and soils of the site. Exotic perennial species do not exist in this state. Because of the changes in these and other environmental factors, the Reference State is becoming increasingly rare.

Characteristics and indicators. (i.e. characteristics and indicators that can be used to distinguish this state from others). Exotic species and hydrologic manipulation would not be present on this site when it is in State 1: Reference State

Resilience management. (i.e. management strategies that will sustain a state and prevent a transition). If intact, the reference state should be managed with current disturbance regimes which has permitted the site to remain in reference condition as well as maintaining the quality and integrity of associated ecological sites. Maintenance of the reference state is contingent upon a monitoring protocol to guide management.

Community 1.1
Normal Emergent Phase–Grasses/Sedges-Spikerushes-Bulrushes

This community phase was historically the most dominant both temporally and spatially. Botanical composition can be quite variable due to variations in water chemistry and other factors. It is often dominated by tall and mid, cool-season graminoids along with sedges, spikerushes and bulrushes. The dominant grass species include common rivergrass (aka whitetop), , mannagrass (i.e. American mannagrass, fowl mannagrass), slimstem reedgrass, bluejoint, and American sloughgrass. Wheat sedge is the primary sedge; bulrushes may include common threesquare (may become dominant in brackish waters); and spikerush includes common spikerush and needle spikerush. Common forbs include bur-reed (mostly broadfuit bur-reed), spotted water hemlock, hemlock water parsnip, water knotweed, and common bladderwort. Moss (Drepanocladus spp.) often covers much of the soil surface during drawdown phase. Bulrushes, such as hardstem, river, or softstem bulrush may also be present in the transition zone to Deep Marsh ecological sites. Fowl bluegrass, northern reedgrass, and prairie cordgrass along with various forbs and sedges occur in the transition zone to Wet Meadow ecological sites.

Annual production can be quite variable but may range from 5800-7800 pounds per acre with graminoids and forbs contributing 95% and 5% of the production, respectively. This is the reference plant community phase and is described in the “Plant Community Composition and Group Annual Production” portion of this ecological site description.

Community 1.2
Open Water Phase – Submergent Vegetation – Buttercup (Submergent Vegetation/Ranunculus spp.)

This community phase occurs when increased precipitation or other factors cause the water levels to increase in depth for a sufficient period of time for the site to become dominated by open water species such as buttercup (e.g. yellow water buttercup, longbeak buttercup). With a decrease in water levels (e.g. return to average precipitation/runoff), the plant community should return to Community Phase 1.1.

Annual production can be quite variable due to wide variations in water chemistry, hydrology, and other factors.

Community 1.3
Drawdown Phase – Fresh-Grasses/Sedges- Spikerushes/ (Grasses/Carex spp.-Eleocharis spp.)

This community phase occurs during prolonged dry periods or other factors leading to decreased water depth with fresh-water conditions. Woolly sedge, spikerush (e.g. common spikerush, needle spikerush), slimstem reedgrass, and other sedges from the adjacent, drier sites encroach onto the site. With an increase in water depth (e.g. return to average precipitation) the plant community will readily return to Community Phase 1.1.

Annual production can be quite variable due to wide variations in water chemistry, hydrology, and other factors.

Community 1.4
Drawdown Phase - Brackish-Foxtail Barely/Spikerushes/Dock-Goosefoot (Hordeum jubatum/Eleocharis spp./Rumex spp./Chenopodium spp.)

This community phase occurs on some wetland soils during a drawdown phase causing more brackish conditions, perhaps coupled with heavy season-long grazing. This leads to a marked increase in foxtail barley, spikerush (e.g. common spikerush, needle spikerush), speedwell, dock (e.g. golden dock, western dock) and goosefoot (e.g. red goosefoot). American sloughgrass, knotweeds, and cinquefoils can also be a common associates of this community phase. Annual production and the extent of bare ground can be quite variable.

With continued heavy season-long grazing, increased soil compaction may result in high amounts of bare ground or in the colonization of exotic forbs and grasses. If this occurs, the site will likely begin transition to State 2: Native/Invaded State or State3: Invaded State.
.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Community Phase 1.1 to 1.2 occurs with above average precipitation or other factors causing an increase in water depth sufficient to shift the vegetation from a diverse mixture of grasses, sedges, spikerushes, and bulrushes to one with more extensive open water supporting buttercup.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Community Phase 1.1 to 1.3 occurs with below average precipitation or other factors causing a drawdown phase with fresh water, shifting the vegetation to woolly sedge, spikerush, and slimstem reedgrass.

Pathway 1.1C
Community 1.1 to 1.4

Community Phase 1.1 to 1.4 occurs during a drawdown phase with the water becoming more brackish. This shifts the dominant vegetation from a diverse mixture of grasses, sedges, spikerushes and bulrushes, to foxtail barley, spikerush, and dock.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Community Phase Pathway 1.2 to 1.1 occurs during times of below average precipitation or other conditions that result in a drawdown phase or drop in water levels sufficient to cause a shift in the vegetation from submergent species such as buttercup to a diverse mixture of grasses, sedges, spikerushes and bulrushes.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1

Community Phase Pathway 1.3 to 1.1 occurs during times of above average precipitation leading to an increase in water depth sufficient to cause a shift in the dominant vegetation from woolly sedge, spikerush, and slimstem reedgrass to a diverse mixture of grasses, sedges, spikerushes and bulrushes.

Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.4

Community Phase Pathway 1.3 to 1.4 occurs with heavy season-long grazing leading to a change from grasses, woolly sedge, spikerush, and slimstem reedgrass to one dominated by foxtail barley, spikerush, and dock.

Context dependence.Season-long grazing, no change in precipitation

Pathway 1.4A
Community 1.4 to 1.1

Community Phase Pathway 1.4 to 1.1 occurs with above average precipitation or other factors causing an increase in water depth sufficient to shift the vegetation from foxtail barley and associates to a diverse mixture of grasses, sedges, spikerushes and bulrushes.

State 2
Native/Invaded State

This state is characterized by the colonization and establishment of minor amounts of exotic plants. Reed canarygrass is native to North America, but exotic strains (largely Eurasian) have been widely introduced and, along with their hybrids, can be quite invasive. Hybrid cattail, the hybrid between narrowleaf cattail and broadleaf cattail is also a common exotic. Canada thistle, and exotic strains of common reed may also invade the site. Although the site is still dominated by native plants, an increase in exotic plants can be expected. Unless a prescribed grazing and/or prescribed burning program is implemented, or an increase in water depth drowns out exotic species, a transition to State 3: Invaded State can be expected.

Three community phases have been identified for this state. The exotic species/hybrids can be expected to increase. Hybrid cattail and exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass tend to form virtual monocultures and, as such, plants more desirable to wildlife and livestock decline.

Maintenance of communities on the periphery of the wetland (e.g. Wet Meadow ecological site, adjacent upland sites) are critical to the ecological integrity/functioning of the wetland ecosystem. If a buffer zone (50 feet minimum) is not maintained, an increase in eutrophication, sedimentation rate, and invasion by exotic species can be expected. For more information on buffer widths please refer to the Gilbert et.al. (2006) in the references section.

To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic species and their hybrids, it is imperative that managerial options (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, maintaining intact buffers) be carefully constructed and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 3: Invaded State should be expected (T2A).

Characteristics and indicators. The presence of trace amounts of exotic species/hybrids (e.g. cattail, reed canarygrass) indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2.

Resilience management. Implementation of management techniques and monitoring procedures designed to limit or control exotic species/hybrids.

Community 2.1
Normal Emergent Phase–Grasses/ Sedges-Spikerushes-Bulrushes/Exotics (Grasses/Carex spp.-Eleocharis spp.-Scripus spp.- Schoenoplectus spp./Exotics)

This is the wetter community phase of State 2: Native/Invaded State. This community is similar to Community Phase 1.1. However, exotic species such as exotic strains (or their hybrids) of reed canarygrass, common reed, as well as hybrid cattail, curly dock, narrowleaf dock, oakleaf goosefoot, marshpepper knotweed, spotted ladysthumb, and others are now minor components of the community.

Annual production can be quite variable due to wide variations in water chemistry, hydrology, and other factors.

Community 2.2
Drawdown Phase-Brackish-Foxtail Barely/Spikerushes/Exotics (Hordeum jubatum/Eleocharis spp./Exotics

This is the drier, brackish community phase in State 2: Native/Invaded State. It is dominated by foxtail barley in association with spikerush, dock, and various native forbs such as water knotweed, Mexican dock, curlytop knotweed, Pursh seepweed, goosefoot, and others. Exotic plants may include exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass, common reed, as well as hybrid cattail, curly dock, narrowleaf dock, oakleaf goosefoot, marshpepper knotweed, spotted ladysthumb, and others which are now minor components of the community. Absinthium (aka wormwood) may also become prominent if the basin dries-up.

Annual production and the extent of bare ground can be quite variable.

Community 2.3
Drawdown Phase–Fresh-Spikerushes/Hybrid Cattail (Eleocharis ssp/Typha x glauca)

This is the drier, fresher community phase in State 2: Native/Invaded State. It is dominated by spikerushes and hybrid cattail. Swamp ragwort, kochia, cocklebur, pale smartweed, and other rather weedy forbs are also common. Exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass and common reed may also become minor components of the community. Absinthium (aka wormwood), Canada thistle, and sow thistle may also become prominent if the basin dries-up.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Community Phase Pathway 2.1 to 2.2 occurs with heavy-season-long grazing coupled with a drawdown phase and saline soils (discharge site). As the pathway progresses, native plant diversity declines while foxtail barley, spikerush, sedges, knotweed, dock, and exotic forbs increase.

Pathway 2.1B
Community 2.1 to 2.3

Community Phase Pathway 2.1 to 2.3 occurs with heavy-season-long grazing coupled with a drawdown phase and non-saline soils (recharge/flowthrough site). As the pathway progresses the site becomes more dominated by spikerushes and hybrid cattail.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Community Phase Pathway 2.2 to 2.1 occurs with the implementation of prescribed grazing with the return to near average precipitation resulting in increased water depth. This leads to a shift from foxtail barley, spikerush, dock, and exotic forbs to one of a diverse mixture of grasses, sedges, spikerushes, and bulrushes along with exotic grasses and exotic forbs.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1

Community Phase 2.3 to 2.1 occurs with the implementation of prescribed grazing with the return to near average precipitation resulting in increased water depth. This leads to increasing prevalence of emergent species such as bulrushes, spikerushes, and sedges.

State 3
Invaded State

This state occurs when the site becomes dominated by exotic plants. The threshold for this state may be reached when hybrid cattail or the exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass exceed 30% of the plant community and native plants represent less than 40% of the community.

One plant community phase has been identified for this state. It is typically dominated by hybrid cattail or exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass. Other exotic species may include Canada thistle, purple loosestrife, flowering rush, and exotic strains/hybrids of common reed. These species typically form virtual monocultures; as a result, plant diversity is low and habitat suitability for some wildlife species is low as well (e.g. hybrid cattail dominated wetlands may not provide waterfowl habitat but may provide white-tailed deer winter habitat). Once this state is established, restoration efforts have proven difficult.

Characteristics and indicators. (i.e. characteristics that can be used to distinguish this state from others). This site is characterized by exotic species/hybrids dominating the site and controlling the ecological processes (i.e. approximately 30 to 40%).

Resilience management. Once established, reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail are very resilient and will withstand grazing, haying pressure and non-use.

Community 3.1
Hybrid Cattail and/or Reed Canarygrass (Typha x glauca or Phalaris arundinacea)

Hybrid cattail or exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass often dominate State 3: Invaded State. Whether hybrid cattail or reed canarygrass dominate the site is largely determined by which species’ propagules (presence/abundance) are present on the site. Exotic strains of common reed are also known to invade the site. Diversity plummets with dominance by either of these species, as both form monotypic stands.

Hybrid cattail is the hybrid of narrowleaf cattail and broadleaf cattail. The hybrid is also known to backcross with the broadleaf cattail. It is widely regarded as aggressive or invasive and typically forms monotypic stands. It is particularly adapted to nutrient enriched habitats with high sedimentation (i.e. associated with tillage, siltation, drainage).

Reed canarygrass and common reed are native to North America, but exotic strains have repeatedly been introduced over the years. These exotic strains and their hybrids are regarded as aggressive or invasive, often forming monotypic stands.

Reed canarygrass, common reed, and hybrid cattail are highly adaptive and managerial efforts to control them has been difficult (see Restoration R3A).

Annual production can be quite variable due to wide variations in water chemistry, hydrology, and other factors.

State 4
Go-back State

Go-Back State often results following cropland abandonment during periods of extended, below average precipitation or drought and consists of only one plant community phase which often is composed of a variety of annual forbs, grasses, spike rushes, etc. including noxious weeds (e.g. Canada thistle) which may need control. Over time, the site will likely become dominated by exotic strains or hybrids of reed canarygrass and/or hybrid cattail.

This state is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T5A pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this state is plant succession following crop abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which maybe noxious weeds.

Characteristics and indicators. Tillage has destroyed the native plant community, altered soil structure and biology, increased eutrophication, reduced soil organic matter, and results in the formation of a tillage induced compacted layer which is restrictive to root growth. Noxious weeds, if present, will need to be managed.

Community 4.1
Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics

Most commonly, this plant community is associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of restoration efforts, resulting in a “go-back” situation. This community phase may be quite variable in composition. Vegetation is generally a mix of pioneer species, both native and exotic, as well as some native and exotic perennials such as foxtail barley, reed canarygrass, slough grass, spikerush, speedwell, dock, goosefoot, knotweeds, absinth wormwood, Canada thistle, hybrid cattail, water horehound, field sowthistle, and others. Annual production can be quite variable due to wide variations in water chemistry, hydrology, and other factors.

Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of a tillage induced compacted layer, erosion, fertility (degree of eutrophication), sedimentation herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.

State 5
Cropland

This state is the result of annual cropping.

Community 5.1
Cropland

Most commonly, this plant community is associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of restoration efforts, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of a tillage induced compacted layer, erosion, fertility (degree of eutrophication), sedimentation herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

This is the transition from the State 1: Reference State to State 2: Native/Invaded State resulting from the colonization and establishment of exotic plants, often exotic strains of reed canarygrass or hybrid cattail. Other exotics known to invade the site include Canada thistle, purple loosestrife, flowering rush, and hybrid strains of common reed. Heavy season-long grazing, prolonged periods of no-use and no fire, and a decrease in the water regime of the site are often involved with this transition. Excessive litter accumulation provides conditions favorable to hybrid cattail or exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass which can quickly spread to form virtual monocultures. As a result, the transition to State 3: Invaded State can be expected.

Constraints to recovery.(i.e. variables or processes that preclude recovery of the former state). Restoration to State 1 is dependent upon hydrology, condition of adjacent upland ecological sites (i.e. cropland), and abundance of exotic species.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

This is the transition from State 1: Reference State to State 3: Invaded State. Although the State 3: Invaded State often forms via State 2: Native/Invaded State, this direct transition to State 3: Invaded State can occur with tillage of the Shallow Marsh ecological site or adjacent upland with an associated increase in eutrophication and sedimentation resulting in vegetation dominance by hybrid cattail or exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass.

Constraints to recovery.Restoration to State 1 is dependent upon hydrology, condition of adjacent upland ecological sites (i.e. cropland), and abundance of exotic species.

Context dependence.Tillage with increased eutrophication and sedimentation

Transition T1c
State 1 to 5

Removal of vegetative cover and tilling for agricultural crop production.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

This restoration pathway from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 1: Refence State is initiated by an increase in water depth sufficient to drown out invasive exotic species. Success of this pathway is dependent upon the invasive species present in State 2 Native/Invaded State. Hybrid cattail, reed canary grass, or perhaps exotic strains of common reed will likely persist with increased water levels, whereas foxtail barley, dock, or Canada and sow thistle will drown out.

Context dependence.(i.e. factors that cause variations in plant community shifts, restoration likelihood, and contribute to uncertainty). Hydrological restoration/management to remove exotic species/hybrids which may necessitate chemical control. Adjacent upland ecological sites will need to remain intact or reseeded to native species in order to prevent sedimentation and nutrient loading to Shallow Marsh ecological site. Prescribed grazing techniques may provide a short-term reduction in reed canarygrass density; however, a combination of mowing and prescribed burning may be more effective than prescribed grazing alone.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

The transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 3: Invaded State can occur with tillage within the site or on adjacent upland sites resulting in an increase in eutrophication and sedimentation leading to a dominance of hybrid cattail or exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass. Studies indicate that a threshold may exist in the transition to this Native/Invaded State on some upland ecological sites when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30% of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40% of the plant community composition. Similar thresholds may exist for exotic strains of reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail on this site.

Constraints to recovery.Restoration to State 2 is dependent upon hydrology and abundance of exotic species/hybrids.

Transition T2b
State 2 to 5

Removal of vegetative cover and tilling for agricultural crop production.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

This restoration pathway from State 3: Invaded State to State 1: Reference State can rarely be accomplished. The likelihood of a successful wetland restoration through hydrological restoration, seeding, increased water regime, chemical treatment, and/or sediment/nutrient removal is limited due the persistence of exotic invasive species such as hybrid cattail or reed canarygrass. A successful upland restoration is also needed to reduce the likelihood of exotic species invasion or continued sedimentation or nutrient loading. It is more likely that a wetland restoration effort that is considered to be successful will eventually end up in State 2 Native/Invaded State.

Context dependence.Reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail are difficult to control, largely due to vigorous spreading rhizomes, high seed production, and a large seed bank. Various control techniques may show signs of success but are often short-term with vegetation reverting within a few years. Adjacent upland ecological sites will need to remain intact or be reseeded to native species in order to prevent sedimentation and nutrient loading to Shallow Marsh ecological site. Prescribed grazing (e.g. heavy seasonal), high-intensity burns, and herbicides have shown some success in reducing the dominance by reed canarygrass. However, within several years the vegetation often reverts. Herbicides can be effective in reducing or eliminating hybrid cattail and can be followed by reseeding (or plugging) desirable species. Prescribed burning has also been effective during dry periods where fire temperatures may kill rhizomes and seeds. Although expensive, mechanical removal of the substrate has also been an effective technique.

Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 2

This restoration pathway from State 3: Invaded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State results from a failed restoration or seeding, increased water regime, chemical treatment, and/or sediment/nutrient removal with failed buffer or upland restoration.

Context dependence.This restoration pathway from State 3: Invaded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State results from a failed restoration or seeding, increased water regime, chemical treatment, and/or sediment/nutrient removal with failed buffer or upland restoration. Context dependence. Reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail are difficult to control, largely due to vigorous spreading rhizomes, high seed production, and a large seed bank. Various control techniques may show signs of success but are often short-term with vegetation reverting within a few years. Prescribed grazing (e.g. heavy seasonal), high-intensity burns, and herbicides have shown some success in reducing the dominance by reed canarygrass. However, within several years the vegetation often reverts. Herbicides can be effective in reducing or eliminating hybrid cattail and can be followed by reseeding (or plugging) desirable species. Prescribed burning has also been effective during dry periods where fire temperatures may kill rhizomes and seeds. Although expensive, mechanical removal of the substrate has also been an effective technique

Transition T3a
State 3 to 5

Removal of vegetative cover and tilling for agricultural crop production.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 2

This restoration pathway from State 4: Go-Back State to State 2: Native/Invaded State results from cessation of annual cropping, successful wetland restoration/ seeding/ plugging, prescribed burning, and vegetation management.

Context dependence.If manipulated, hydrology needs to be restored. Elevated soil nitrogen levels and sedimentation have been shown to benefit reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail. Sedimentation may need to be removed to preexisting conditions. A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique. Management (e.g. prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 3

This restoration pathway from State 4: Go-Back State to State 3: Invaded State results from cessation of annual cropping followed by a failed wetland restoration/seeding with no use and no fire.

Context dependence.Failure to restore hydrology and failed range plantings can result from many causes, both singularly and in combination, including: drought, poor seedbed preparation, improper seeding methods, seeded species not adapted to the site, insufficient weed control, herbicide carryover, poor seed quality (purity & germination), improper management.

Transition T4a
State 4 to 5

Removal of vegetative cover and tilling for agricultural crop production.

Restoration pathway R5b
State 5 to 3

This transition from any plant community to State 4: Go-Back State. Most commonly, it is associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of restoration efforts, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of a tillage induced compacted layer, erosion, fertility (degree of eutrophication), sedimentation herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 4

This transition from any plant community to State 4: Go-Back State. Most commonly, it is associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of restoration efforts, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g. development of a tillage induced compacted layer, erosion, fertility (degree of eutrophication), sedimentation herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.