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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
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Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 055C–Southern Black Glaciated Plains
The Southern Black Glaciated Plains (55C) is located within the Northern Great Plains Region. It is entirely within South Dakota encompassing about 10,835 square miles (Figure 1). The elevation ranges from 1,310 to 1,970 square feet. The MLRA is on nearly level to undulating glacial till plains interrupted by steeper slopes adjacent to streams and moraines. The James River is an under-fit stream. Its valley was carved by floodwaters draining glacial Lake Dakota and is filled with glacial outwash and alluvial deposits. (USDA-NRCS, 2006).
The dominant soil order in this MLRA is Mollisols. The soils in the area dominantly have a mesic soil temperature regime, an ustic soil moisture regime, and mixed or smectitic mineralogy. They generally are very deep, well drained to very poorly drained, and clayey or loamy. This area supports natural prairie vegetation characterized by western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata), and porcupinegrass (Hesperostipa spartea) with Prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), and reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) as the dominant vegetation on the poorly drained soils. (USDA-NRCS, 2006).Classification relationships
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): Southern Black Glaciated Plains (55C) (USDA-NRCS, 2006)
USFS Subregions: North Central Glaciated Plains Section (251B); Yankton Hills and Valleys Subsection (251Bf); Western Glaciated Plains Section (332B); James River Lowland Subsection (332Bb); North Central Great Plains Section (332D); Southern Missouri Coteau Slope Subsection (332Dd); Southern Missouri Coteau Subsection (332De) - (Cleland et al., 2007).
US EPA Level IV Ecoregion: Southern Missouri Coteau (42e); Southern Missouri Coteau Slope (42f); James River Lowland (46n) - (USEPA 2013)Ecological site concept
The Thin Upland ecological site occurs on the shoulder slopes in the upland areas. Soils are well drained and will effervesce with acid at or near the surface. Precipitation tends to runoff, leaving less soil moisture for plant growth, production is lower, and species composition will tend towards more drought tolerant. In some areas the surface layer may consist of stony to extremely stony. Slopes can range from 0 to 40 percent. Vegetation in the Reference State is dominated by warm-season grasses, with a subdominant cool-season component. Warm season grasses include little bluestem and big bluestem. Cool season grasses include needlegrasses, with porcupinegrass making up the majority. Forbs include cudweed sagewort, prairie coneflower, and western yarrow. Non-native grasses such as smooth bromegrass and Kentucky bluegrass or native conifers such as eastern redcedar may invade due to shifts in disturbance regime.
Associated sites
R055CY010SD Loamy
These sites occur on upland areas. The soils are well drained and have less than 40 percent clay in the surface and subsoil. The central concept soil series are Clarno, Hand, and Houdek, but other series are included.
R055CY011SD Clayey
These sites occur on upland areas. The soils are well drained and have greater than 40 percent clay in the surface and subsoil. The central concept soil series are Beadle and Stickney, but other series are included.
R055CY020SD Loamy Overflow
These sites occur in upland swales. The Soils are moderately well drained, which have water flow into and over or through the site. The central concept soil series are Bonilla and Prosper but other series are included.
Similar sites
R055CY010SD Loamy
The Loamy site occurs in a backslope landscape position and does not effervesce with acid at or near the surface. The Loamy site will have less little bluestem and higher production than a Thin Upland site.
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree Not specified
Shrub Not specified
Herbaceous (1) Schizachyrium scoparium
(2) Hesperostipa sparteaPhysiographic features
This site occurs on nearly level to steeply sloping uplands.
Figure 2. Distribution Map of theThin Upland Site within MLRA 55C. In many cases, data is not spatially consistent across political boundaries due to the method with which soils were mapped; e. g. county subsets.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) Moraine
(2) Plain
(3) Hill
Flooding frequency None Ponding frequency None Elevation 1300 – 2000 ft Slope 4 – 35 % Water table depth 80 in Aspect Aspect is not a significant factor Climatic features
MLRA 55C is considered to have a continental climate: Cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature may also abound. The climate is the result of this MLRA’s location near the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the Northern Great Plains, and air masses move freely across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.
Annual precipitation typically ranges from 19 to 25 inches per year. The average annual temperature is about 47°F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 15°F (Howard, South Dakota [SD]), to about 20°F (Wagner, SD). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 73°F (Howard, SD), to about 77°F (Wagner, SD). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 58°F. This large annual range attests to the continental nature of this area's climate. Hourly winds are estimated to average about 12 miles per hour (mph) annually, ranging from about 13 mph during the spring to about 11 mph during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime, and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 mph.
Growth of cool-season plants begins in early to mid-March, slowing or ceasing in late June. Warm-season plants begin growth about mid-May and continue to early or mid-September. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.Table 3 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 120-130 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) 140-150 days Precipitation total (characteristic range) 20-30 in Frost-free period (actual range) 110-130 days Freeze-free period (actual range) 130-160 days Precipitation total (actual range) 20-30 in Frost-free period (average) 130 days Freeze-free period (average) 140 days Precipitation total (average) 20 in Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 3. Monthly precipitation range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range
BarLineFigure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 8 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) FAULKTON 1 NW [USC00392927], Faulkton, SD
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(2) REDFIELD [USC00397052], Redfield, SD
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(3) MILLER [USC00395561], Miller, SD
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(4) HURON RGNL AP [USW00014936], Huron, SD
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(5) DE SMET [USC00392302], De Smet, SD
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(6) HOWARD [USC00394037], Howard, SD
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(7) FORESTBURG 4 NNE [USC00393029], Artesian, SD
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(8) CHAMBERLAIN MUNI AP [USW00094943], Chamberlain, SD
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(9) CHAMBERLAIN 5 S [USC00391621], Chamberlain, SD
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(10) ACADEMY 2NE [USC00390043], Platte, SD
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(11) MITCHELL MUNI AP [USW00094950], Mitchell, SD
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(12) MITCHELL [USC00395669], Mitchell, SD
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(13) ALEXANDRIA [USC00390128], Alexandria, SD
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(14) SALEM 5NE [USC00395360], Salem, SD
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(15) BRIDGEWATER [USC00391032], Bridgewater, SD
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(16) MARION [USC00395228], Marion, SD
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(17) MENNO [USC00395481], Menno, SD
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(18) ARMOUR [USC00390296], Armour, SD
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(19) TYNDALL [USC00398472], Tyndall, SD
">Influencing water features
No riparian areas or wetland features are directly associated with this site.
Soil features
The features common to soils in this site are the loam to silt loam textured surface layers and slopes of 4 to 35 percent. The soils in this site are well drained and formed in loamy till or residuum from calcareous siltstone. The surface layer is 3 to 9 inches thick. The texture of the subsurface layers ranges from loam to silty clay loam. The soils have a moderately slow to slow infiltration rate. These soils are typically calcareous at or near the surface. This site should show slight to no evidence of rills, wind scoured areas, or pedestalled plants. Water flow paths are broken, irregular in appearance, or discontinuous with numerous debris dams or vegetative barriers. The soil surface is stable and intact.
Soil series are Betts and Ethan.
These soils are susceptible to wind and water erosion. The hazard of water erosion increases on slopes greater than about 15 percent. Loss of 50 percent or more of the surface layer of the soils on this site can result in a shift in species composition and/or production.
Access Web Soil Survey (http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm) for specific local soils information.Table 4. Representative soil features
Surface texture (1) Loam
(2) Silt loam
Family particle size (1) Loamy
Drainage class Well drained Permeability class Slow to moderately slow Soil depth 30 – 80 in Surface fragment cover <=3" 0 – 9 % Surface fragment cover >3" 0 – 25 % Available water capacity
(0-40in)5 – 7 in Calcium carbonate equivalent
(0-40in)5 – 45 % Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)0 – 8 mmhos/cm Sodium adsorption ratio
(0-40in)0 – 3 Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-40in)6.6 – 8.4 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 8 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 4 % Ecological dynamics
State and Community Phases
The information in this Ecological Site Description, including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed based on historical data, current field data, professional experience, and a review of the scientific literature. As a result, all possible scenarios or plant species may not be included. Key indicator plant species, disturbances, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.
The site which is located in the Southern Black Glaciated Plains Region developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions and included natural influence of large herding herbivores and occasional fire. Changes will occur in the plant communities due to weather fluctuations and management actions. Under adverse impacts, a relatively rapid decline in vegetative vigor and composition can occur. Under favorable conditions, the site has the potential to resemble the Reference State. Interpretations for this site are based primarily on the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Porcupinegrass Plant Community Phase. This community phase and the Reference State have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts also have been considered.
This ecological site (ES) has been grazed by domestic livestock since they were introduced into the area. The introduction of domestic livestock and the use of fencing and reliable water sources have changed the ecological dynamics of this site. Continuous season-long grazing (during the typical growing season of May through October) or repeated seasonal grazing (e.g., every spring, every summer) without adequate recovery periods following grazing events causes departure from the 3.1 Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Porcupinegrass Plant Community Phase. Blue grama will eventually develop into a sod. Western wheatgrass will increase initially and then begin to decrease. Green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), needle and thread, porcupinegrass, sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) will decrease in frequency and production. Extended periods of non-use and/or lack of fire will result in excessive litter and a plant community dominated by cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis), and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). Extended periods of no surface fire could result in the invasion of conifers in which eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) and Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) will increase and could eventually dominate the site.
Following the state-and-transition diagram are narratives for each of the described states and community phases. These may not represent every possibility, but they are the most prevalent and repeatable states and community phases. The associated plant composition tables have been developed from the best available knowledge at the time of this revision. As more data are collected, some of these community phases and states may be revised or removed, and new ones may be added. The main purpose for including the descriptions here is to capture the current knowledge and experience at the time of this revision.
State and Community Phases
The information in this Ecological Site Description, including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed based on historical data, current field data, professional experience, and a review of the scientific literature. As a result, all possible scenarios or plant species may not be included. Key indicator plant species, disturbances, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.State and transition model
Custom diagramStandard diagram
Figure 9. State-and-Transition Model for the Thin Upland Site in MLRA 55C.
Figure 10. Legend for the Thin Upland Site in MLRA 55C.
Figure 11. Matrix for the Thin Upland Site in MLRA 55C.
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)
States 2 and 6 (additional transitions)
State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 6 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference StateThe Reference State represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site (ES). This state was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. Prior to European settlement of North America, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the Reference condition included periods of below and above average precipitation, periodic fire, and herbivory by insects and large ungulates. Timing of fires and herbivory coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. In some locations, this site likely received relatively heavy grazing pressure. Cool-season and tall warm-season grasses would have declined and corresponding increase in short warm-season grasses would have occurred. Today, a similar state, the Native/Invaded State (State 3) can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest.
Community 1.1
Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-PorcupinegrassInterpretations are based primarily on the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Porcupinegrass Plant Community Phase (this is also considered to be the Reference community). The potential vegetation was about 82 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 8 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses included little bluestem, big bluestem, porcupinegrass, green needlegrass, and sideoats grama. Other grass or grass-like species included prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata), western wheatgrass, plains muhly (Muhlenbergia cuspidata), Canada wildrye (Elymus Canadensis), prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), and sedges (Cyperaceae). This plant community was resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high tolerance to drought. This was a sustainable plant community in regards to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 1800 2348 2845 Forb 120 203 310 Shrub/Vine 80 149 245 Total 2000 2700 3400 Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5504 , Southern Black Glaciated Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season . Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 7 18 24 25 15 7 1 0 0 Community 1.2
Little Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass-Blue GramaThis plant community evolved under heavy, continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included little bluestem, western wheatgrass, blue grama, green needlegrass, and needle and thread. Grasses of secondary importance included sideoats grama, porcupinegrass, big bluestem, and sedge (Carex). Forbs commonly found in this plant community included cudweed sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana), prairie coneflower (Ratibida), and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). This plant community had similar plant composition to the 3.2 Little Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of non-native invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass.
When compared to the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Porcupinegrass Plant Community Phase, western wheatgrass, blue grama, and sedges increased. Big bluestem, porcupinegrass, green needlegrass, and sideoats grama decreased, and production of mid- and tall warm-season grasses was also reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes would have been functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses would have been reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allowed for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species.Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5504 , Southern Black Glaciated Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season . Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 7 18 24 25 15 7 1 0 0 Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2Heavy, continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites, will shift this community to the 1.2 Little Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1Prescribed grazing, and/or prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (every 3 to 5 years), a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies, or periodic light to moderate grazing (possibly including periodic rest) will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Porcupinegrass Plant Community Phase
State 2
Short-grass Sod StateTh Short-grass Sod State is the result of heavy, continuous grazing and the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated blue grama and threadleaf sedge. . Taller cool-season species will decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot cause a reduction in the sod-grass dominance.
Community 2.1
Blue Grama-Threadleaf SedgeThis plant community evolved under heavy, continuous season grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included blue grama and threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia). Grasses of secondary importance included needle and thread and western wheatgrass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community included cudweed sagewort, fringed sagewort (Artemisia frigida), green sagewort (Artemisia dracunculus), and western yarrow.
When compared to the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Porcupinegrass Plant Community Phase, the more grazing tolerant species such as blue grama and threadleaf sedge were dominant on this plant community. Tall and mid-grasses decreased significantly. This vegetation state was very resistant to change especially if the disturbance continued and the short-statured species such as blue grama increased. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing. This plant community was less productive than other phases. The thick sod increased runoff and prevented other species from getting established.Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5504 , Southern Black Glaciated Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season . Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 7 18 24 25 15 7 1 0 0 State 3
Native/Invaded StateThe Native/Invaded State represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by cool- and warm-season grasses. It can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Taller species can decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur.
Community 3.1
Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-PorcupinegrassThis plant community phase is similar to the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Porcupinegrass Plant Community Phase but it also contains minor amounts of non-native invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (up to about 15 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. This community is dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses include little bluestem, big bluestem, green needlegrass, porcupinegrass, and sideoats grama. Other grass or grass-like species include prairie dropseed, needle and thread, western wheatgrass, plains muhly, Canada wildrye, prairie sandreed, switchgrass, Indiangrass, slender wheatgrass, blue grama, Kentucky bluegrass, and threadleaf sedge. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high tolerance to drought. This is a sustainable plant community in regards to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5504 , Southern Black Glaciated Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season . Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 7 18 24 25 15 7 1 0 0 Community 3.2
Little Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass-Kentucky BluegrassThis plant community is a result of heavy, continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include little bluestem, western wheatgrass, Kentucky Bluegrass, and blue grama. Grasses of secondary importance include sideoats grama, green needlegrass, needle and thread, porcupinegrass, big bluestem, buffalograss (Bouteloua dactyloides), smooth bromegrass, and threadleaf sedge. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include cudweed sagewort, prairie coneflower, and western yarrow.
When compared to the 3.1 Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Porcupinegrass Plant Community Phase, western wheatgrass, blue grama, and sedges have increased. Big bluestem, porcupinegrass, green needlegrass, and sideoats grama decreased. Production of mid- and tall warm-season grasses is also reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. Most of the components of the ecological processes are functioning at optimum levels. However, the vigor and reproductive capability of the tall warm-season grasses are reduced due to grazing pressure or a combination of stressors. A reduction of this dominant functional group allows for an increase in shorter-statured (and shallower rooted) species. The introduction of non-native invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass results in alterations to the soil profile. Organic matter levels tend to decrease and begin to be concentrated more in the surface layers, and the structure will begin to be modified. These changes favor the shallow-rooted species and hasten their eventual dominance if steps are not taken to reduce these species.Figure 17. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 6. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 1295 1653 1970 Forb 90 190 330 Shrub/Vine 15 57 100 Total 1400 1900 2400 Figure 18. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5503 , Southern Black Glaciated Plains, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 10 20 28 21 10 5 3 0 0 Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2Heavy, continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites, will shift this community to the 3.2 Little Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 3.1 Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Porcupinegrass Plant Community Phase.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing State 4
Invaded StateThe Invaded State is a result of encroachment mainly by invasive introduced cool-season grasses. The ecological processes are not functioning, especially the biotic processes and the hydrologic functions. The introduced cool-season grasses cause reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. The opportunity for high intensity spring burns is severely reduced by early green-up and increased moisture and humidity at the soil surface. Grazing pressure cannot cause a reduction in sod-grass dominance. Production is limited to the sod forming species. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases and energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by root depth of the dominant species.
Community 4.1
Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky BluegrassThis plant community phase is a result of extended periods of non-use and no fire or occasionally light levels of grazing over several years. It is characterized by dominance of smooth bromegrass and Kentucky bluegrass. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced.
The dominance of these introduced species has been shown to alter the biotic component of the soil, as well as, organic matter levels and eventually the soil structure. These alterations perpetuate the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass and tend to make establishment of native species extremely difficult.Figure 19. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 7. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 1620 2422 2760 Shrub/Vine 55 168 320 Forb 125 210 320 Total 1800 2800 3400 Figure 20. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5501 , Southern Black Glaciated Plains, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 4 12 25 36 10 5 4 4 0 0 Community 4.2
Kentucky Bluegrass-Blue GramaThis plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous grazing or a combination of disturbances such as extended periods of below-average precipitation combined with heavy continuous grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and blue grama. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface as well. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short, as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.
Figure 21. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 8. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 825 1253 1770 Forb 65 105 155 Shrub/Vine 10 42 75 Total 900 1400 2000 Figure 22. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5502 , Southern Black Glaciated Plains, cool-season dominant, warm-season . Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 10 23 34 15 6 5 4 0 0 Community 4.3
Annual/Pioneer, Non-Native PerennialThis plant community developed under continuous, heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances (e.g., heavy use areas, defoliation by rodents, etc.). The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable but often include non-native invasive or early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites.
Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2Heavy, continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites, will shift this community to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 4.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing Pathway 4.3A
Community 4.3 to 4.2This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase.
Conservation practices
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) State 5
Conifer-Invaded StateThe Conifer-Invaded Stateis dominated (canopy exceeds 20 percent of total surface area) by areas where trees have become established or have encroached onto the site due to the absence of periodic fire. This state is dominated by eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The plant community can develop into a closed canopy that impedes the reproductive capability of the major native perennial grass species. A single eastern redcedar tree with a 7 foot crown diameter eliminates the equivalent of 3 pounds of forage. Further, the forage potential of a pasture with 250 mature eastern redcedar trees per acre (or one tree every thirteen feet) is reduced by 50 percent. It is suggested that reducing stocking rates by 10 percent for every 50 trees per acre. The increase in tree canopy which is a result of a disruption of the natural, and human related fire regimes that occurred prior to European settlement, which kept trees from encroaching much of the grasslands.
Community 5.1
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Little BluestemThis plant community evolved due to the invasion of conifers, such as eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. This phase was a result of the absence of periodic fire. These events may cause a reduction in warm-season grasses and an increase in cool-season grasses and allow for the encroachment of conifers. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 50 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 30 percent trees. Dominant grasses and grass-likes include little bluestem, big bluestem, porcupinegrass, western wheatgrass, and blue grama. As the canopy increases, warm-season grasses tend to decrease as the cool-season grasses increase. Forbs will be diverse.
Trees species will include eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. When compared to the 1.1 Little Bluestem-Big Bluestem-Porcupinegrass Plant Community, coniferous trees have increased significantly and herbaceous component has decreased. This plant community is susceptible to the encroachment of eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper.Community 5.2
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky BluegrassThis plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing or non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years). When compared to the 5.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Little Bluestem Plant Community, the amount of non-native invasive cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass have increased significantly.
It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, and blue grama. The dominance of Kentucky bluegrass is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface as well. Production is limited to the sod forming species. The period that palatability is high is relatively short, as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases, energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by root depth of the dominate species. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.Community 5.3
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain JuniperThis plant community phase is a result of no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years). Coniferous trees have increased significantly, and the herbaceous component has decreased. With the dominance of the coniferous trees such as eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper, the canopy covers the area and grass species are unable to survive. Grass production for livestock is severely limited. Prescribed burning before the juniper species reach maturity and are still susceptible to fire (< 5 foot in height), or mechanical brush management can be used to maintain or recover 5.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, heavy continuous grazing, or invasion of non-native plant species will shift this plant community to the 5.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.3No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will shift this plant community to the 5.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase.
State 6
Crop Production StateThe Crop Production State is characterized by the production of annual crops using a variety of tillage and cropping systems along with management practices.
Community 6.1
Annual CropsThis plant community developed with the use of a variety of tillage and cropping systems for the production of annual crops including corn, soybeans, wheat, and a variety of other crops.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2Heavy, continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year, typically beginning early in the season) will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge Plant Community Phase within the Short Grass Sod State (State 2).
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, heavy continuous grazing, or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Transition T5
State 1 to 4Encroachment of non-native invasive and noxious species, abandonment of cropping, or seeding of introduced or native improved varieties of forage species may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4), and more specifically to the 4.3 Annual/Pioneer, Non-native Perennial Plant Community Phase. In the case of a seeding, refer to the corresponding Forage Suitability Group (FSG) description for adapted species and expected production (production estimates in the FSG description may be unrealistically high due to the degraded condition of the site at this phase).
Transition T1C
State 1 to 5No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and invasion of conifer will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5).
Transition T1D
State 1 to 6Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Transition T5
State 2 to 4Encroachment of non-native invasive or noxious species, abandonment of cropping, or seeding of introduced or native improved varieties of forage species may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4), and more specifically to the 4.3 Annual/Pioneer, Non-native Perennial Plant Community Phase. In the case of a seeding, refer to the corresponding Forage Suitability Group (FSG) description for adapted species and expected production (production estimates in the FSG description may be unrealistically high due to the degraded condition of the site at this phase).
Transition T2A
State 2 to 6Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Transition T3A, T3B
State 3 to 4Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4). Heavy, continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling.
Transition T3C
State 3 to 6Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Restoration pathway T4A
State 4 to 3Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest), coupled with prescribed burning (occurring at relatively frequent intervals every 3 to 5 years), and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Transition T4C
State 4 to 5No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and invasion of conifer will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 5.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5).
Transition T4B
State 4 to 6Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Restoration pathway T5A
State 5 to 1Brush management (which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers), coupled with prescribed burning (occurring at relatively frequent intervals every 3 to 5 years), and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 5.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Little Bluestem Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Reference State (State 1).
Restoration pathway T5B, T5D
State 5 to 3Brush management (which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers), coupled with prescribed burning (occurring at relatively frequent intervals, every 3 to 5 years), and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 5.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3). Brush management (which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers), coupled with prescribed burning (occurring at relatively frequent intervals, every 3 to 5 years), and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 5.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Restoration pathway T5C
State 5 to 4Brush management (which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers) may lead this 5.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4).
Transition T5E
State 5 to 6Brush management (which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers) coupled with tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Restoration pathway T6B, T6C
State 6 to 4Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 6) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4). Cropping followed by abandonment may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the 4.3 Annual Pioneer- Perennial Pioneer Plant Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4).
Additional community tables
Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Mid Warm-Season Grasses 540–945 little bluestem SCSC Schizachyrium scoparium 270–810 – sideoats grama BOCU Bouteloua curtipendula 135–405 – prairie dropseed SPHE Sporobolus heterolepis 81–270 – plains muhly MUCU3 Muhlenbergia cuspidata 0–135 – 2 Cool-Season Bunchgrasses 270–675 porcupinegrass HESP11 Hesperostipa spartea 135–540 – green needlegrass NAVI4 Nassella viridula 81–405 – needle and thread HECOC8 Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata 54–270 – Canada wildrye ELCA4 Elymus canadensis 0–135 – 3 Tall Warm-Season Grasses 270–675 big bluestem ANGE Andropogon gerardii 216–675 – prairie sandreed CALO Calamovilfa longifolia 27–135 – switchgrass PAVI2 Panicum virgatum 27–135 – Indiangrass SONU2 Sorghastrum nutans 0–135 – 4 Wheatgrass 135–270 western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 135–270 – slender wheatgrass ELTR7 Elymus trachycaulus 0–135 – 5 Short Warm-Season Grasses 54–135 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 54–135 – hairy grama BOHI2 Bouteloua hirsuta 0–81 – buffalograss BODA2 Bouteloua dactyloides 0–81 – 6 Other Native Grasses 27–135 prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 27–81 – Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 2GRAM Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 0–54 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 0–54 – 7 Grass-likes 54–189 threadleaf sedge CAFI Carex filifolia 54–189 – Grass-like (not a true grass) 2GL Grass-like (not a true grass) 0–54 – Forb8 Forbs 135–270 Forb, native 2FN Forb, native 27–81 – blacksamson echinacea ECAN2 Echinacea angustifolia 27–81 – stiff sunflower HEPA19 Helianthus pauciflorus 27–54 – blazing star LIATR Liatris 27–54 – scurfpea PSORA2 Psoralidium 27–54 – cutleaf anemone PUPAM Pulsatilla patens ssp. multifida 0–54 – upright prairie coneflower RACO3 Ratibida columnifera 27–54 – compassplant SILA3 Silphium laciniatum 0–54 – goldenrod SOLID Solidago 27–54 – white heath aster SYER Symphyotrichum ericoides 27–54 – American vetch VIAM Vicia americana 27–54 – field sagewort ARCA12 Artemisia campestris 0–54 – white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 27–54 – purple prairie clover DAPU5 Dalea purpurea 27–54 – Nuttall's sensitive-briar MINU6 Mimosa nuttallii 27–54 – purple locoweed OXLA3 Oxytropis lambertii 0–27 – milkvetch ASTRA Astragalus 0–27 – wavyleaf thistle CIUN Cirsium undulatum 0–27 – western yarrow ACMIO Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis 0–27 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 0–27 – pussytoes ANTEN Antennaria 0–27 – lacy tansyaster MAPI Machaeranthera pinnatifida 0–27 – Shrub/Vine9 Shrubs 81–216 leadplant AMCA6 Amorpha canescens 27–135 – snowberry SYMPH Symphoricarpos 27–81 – prairie sagewort ARFR4 Artemisia frigida 0–54 – rose ROSA5 Rosa 27–54 – Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) 0–54 – Table 10. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 11. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 12. Community 3.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 13. Community 3.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Mid Warm-Season Grasses 190–475 little bluestem SCSC Schizachyrium scoparium 95–380 – prairie dropseed SPHE Sporobolus heterolepis 0–95 – sideoats grama BOCU Bouteloua curtipendula 0–95 – plains muhly MUCU3 Muhlenbergia cuspidata 0–95 – 2 Cool-Season Bunchgrasses 38–190 needle and thread HECOC8 Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata 38–190 – porcupinegrass HESP11 Hesperostipa spartea 0–95 – green needlegrass NAVI4 Nassella viridula 0–95 – 3 Tall Warm-Season Grasses 38–190 big bluestem ANGE Andropogon gerardii 38–190 – prairie sandreed CALO Calamovilfa longifolia 0–57 – switchgrass PAVI2 Panicum virgatum 0–38 – 4 Wheatgrass 190–380 western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 190–380 – slender wheatgrass ELTR7 Elymus trachycaulus 0–38 – 5 Short Warm-Season Grasses 95–285 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 95–285 – hairy grama BOHI2 Bouteloua hirsuta 0–95 – buffalograss BODA2 Bouteloua dactyloides 0–95 – 6 Other Native Grasses 19–95 Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 2GRAM Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 0–95 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 0–38 – prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 19–38 – 7 Grass-likes 95–228 threadleaf sedge CAFI Carex filifolia 57–228 – Grass-like (not a true grass) 2GL Grass-like (not a true grass) 0–95 – 8 Non-Native Grasses 95–342 Kentucky bluegrass POPR Poa pratensis 38–285 – crested wheatgrass AGCR Agropyron cristatum 0–190 – brome BROMU Bromus 19–152 – quackgrass ELRE4 Elymus repens 0–95 – smooth brome BRIN2 Bromus inermis 0–95 – Forb9 Forbs 95–285 Forb, introduced 2FI Forb, introduced 19–133 – white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 19–95 – field sagewort ARCA12 Artemisia campestris 0–76 – Forb, native 2FN Forb, native 0–57 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 19–57 – scurfpea PSORA2 Psoralidium 19–57 – goldenrod SOLID Solidago 19–57 – white heath aster SYER Symphyotrichum ericoides 19–57 – blazing star LIATR Liatris 0–38 – western yarrow ACMIO Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis 0–38 – blacksamson echinacea ECAN2 Echinacea angustifolia 19–38 – stiff sunflower HEPA19 Helianthus pauciflorus 0–19 – wavyleaf thistle CIUN Cirsium undulatum 0–19 – purple prairie clover DAPU5 Dalea purpurea 0–19 – pussytoes ANTEN Antennaria 0–19 – lacy tansyaster MAPI Machaeranthera pinnatifida 0–19 – Nuttall's sensitive-briar MINU6 Mimosa nuttallii 0–19 – purple locoweed OXLA3 Oxytropis lambertii 0–19 – American vetch VIAM Vicia americana 0–19 – upright prairie coneflower RACO3 Ratibida columnifera 0–19 – Shrub/Vine10 Shrubs 19–95 prairie sagewort ARFR4 Artemisia frigida 19–57 – rose ROSA5 Rosa 0–38 – snowberry SYMPH Symphoricarpos 0–38 – Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) 0–38 – leadplant AMCA6 Amorpha canescens 0–38 – Table 14. Community 4.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Mid Warm-Season Grasses 0–14 little bluestem SCSC Schizachyrium scoparium 0–140 – sideoats grama BOCU Bouteloua curtipendula 0–56 – plains muhly MUCU3 Muhlenbergia cuspidata 0–28 – prairie dropseed SPHE Sporobolus heterolepis 0–28 – 2 Cool-Season Bunchgrasses 0–140 needle and thread HECOC8 Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata 0–140 – 3 Tall Warm-Season Grasses 0–140 big bluestem ANGE Andropogon gerardii 0–84 – prairie sandreed CALO Calamovilfa longifolia 0–84 – 4 Wheatgrass 0–280 western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 0–280 – 5 Short Warm-Season Grasse 0–140 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 0–140 – hairy grama BOHI2 Bouteloua hirsuta 0–28 – buffalograss BODA2 Bouteloua dactyloides 0–28 – 6 Other Native Grasses 0–140 Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 2GRAM Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 0–140 – prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 0–56 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 0–28 – 7 Grass-likes 28–140 threadleaf sedge CAFI Carex filifolia 28–140 – Grass-like (not a true grass) 2GL Grass-like (not a true grass) 0–84 – 8 Non-Native Grasses 560–1820 smooth brome BRIN2 Bromus inermis 280–1540 – Kentucky bluegrass POPR Poa pratensis 140–840 – brome BROMU Bromus 56–420 – crested wheatgrass AGCR Agropyron cristatum 0–420 – quackgrass ELRE4 Elymus repens 0–280 – Forb9 Forbs 140–280 Forb, introduced 2FI Forb, introduced 28–140 – white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 28–112 – Forb, native 2FN Forb, native 0–84 – goldenrod SOLID Solidago 28–84 – white heath aster SYER Symphyotrichum ericoides 28–84 – scurfpea PSORA2 Psoralidium 28–56 – western yarrow ACMIO Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis 0–56 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 28–56 – blacksamson echinacea ECAN2 Echinacea angustifolia 0–56 – field sagewort ARCA12 Artemisia campestris 0–56 – blazing star LIATR Liatris 0–28 – wavyleaf thistle CIUN Cirsium undulatum 0–28 – pussytoes ANTEN Antennaria 0–28 – upright prairie coneflower RACO3 Ratibida columnifera 0–28 – American vetch VIAM Vicia americana 0–28 – Shrub/Vine10 Shrubs 56–280 snowberry SYMPH Symphoricarpos 56–280 – Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) 0–112 – prairie sagewort ARFR4 Artemisia frigida 0–56 – rose ROSA5 Rosa 0–56 – Table 15. Community 4.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Cool-Season Bunchgrasses 0–70 needle and thread HECOC8 Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata 0–70 – 2 Wheatgrass 0–210 western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 0–210 – 3 Short Warm-Season Grasses 140–350 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 140–350 – hairy grama BOHI2 Bouteloua hirsuta 0–70 – buffalograss BODA2 Bouteloua dactyloides 0–70 – 4 Other Native Grasses 14–70 Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 2GRAM Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 0–70 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 0–28 – prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 14–28 – 5 Grass-likes 140–350 threadleaf sedge CAFI Carex filifolia 140–350 – Grass-like (not a true grass) 2GL Grass-like (not a true grass) 0–70 – 6 Non-Native Grasses 210–560 Kentucky bluegrass POPR Poa pratensis 140–490 – smooth brome BRIN2 Bromus inermis 0–140 – brome BROMU Bromus 14–140 – quackgrass ELRE4 Elymus repens 0–140 – crested wheatgrass AGCR Agropyron cristatum 0–70 – Forb7 Forbs 70–140 Forb, introduced 2FI Forb, introduced 14–70 – western yarrow ACMIO Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis 14–56 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 14–42 – field sagewort ARCA12 Artemisia campestris 0–42 – white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 14–42 – goldenrod SOLID Solidago 14–42 – white heath aster SYER Symphyotrichum ericoides 14–42 – scurfpea PSORA2 Psoralidium 0–28 – Forb, native 2FN Forb, native 0–28 – pussytoes ANTEN Antennaria 0–14 – Shrub/Vine8 Shrubs 14–70 prairie sagewort ARFR4 Artemisia frigida 14–56 – snowberry SYMPH Symphoricarpos 0–42 – Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) 0–28 – Table 16. Community 4.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 17. Community 5.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 18. Community 5.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 19. Community 5.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 20. Community 6.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Animal community
The following table lists annual, suggested initial stocking rates with average growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ES description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. More accurate carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity. Stocking rates are calculated using Animal-Unit-Month (AUM), which is the amount of air-dry forage required to feed a cow, with or without calf, for one month.
Bluestem/Needlegrass (1.1 & 3.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2,700
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.74
Little Bluestem/Western Wheatgrass/Kentucky Bluegrass (3.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 1,900
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.52
Smooth Bromegrass/Kentucky Bluegrass (4.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2,800
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.77
Kentucky Bluegrass/Blue Grama (4.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 1,400
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.38
Annual/Pioneer, Non-Native Perennial (4.3)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 800
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.22
*Based on 912 lbs./acre (air-dry weight) per Animal Unit Month (AUM) and on 25 percent harvest efficiency (refer to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), National Range and Pasture Handbook).
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements, and added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.Hydrological functions
Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is typically dominated by soils in hydrologic group B. Infiltration and runoff potential for this site varies from moderate to high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where short-grasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by blue grama, buffalograss, bluegrass, or smooth bromegrass will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).
Recreational uses
This site provides hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching, and other opportunities. The wide varieties of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wood products
No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.
Other products
Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.
Other information
Ecological Site Correlation Issues and Questions:
• SD059 Hand County, SD did not use the (GnA) Glenham-Java-Cavo loams, 0 to 4 percent slopes (national symbol cw4v) as used in the adjoining SD069 Hyde County, SD.
• SD059 Hand County, SD did not use the (HgB) Highmore-Java complex, 1 to 5 percent slopes (national symbol cxxx) as used in the adjoining SD603 Brule and Buffalo Counties, SD.
• SD059 Hand County, SD did not use the (HwB) Houdek-Ethan-Prosper loams, 1 to 6 percent slopes (national symbol 2tlb9) as used in the adjoining SD073 Jerauld County, SD.
• SD059 Hand County, SD did not use the (HwC) Houdek-Ethan-Prosper loams, 2 to 9 percent slopes (national symbol 2tlbb) as used in the adjoining SD073 Jerauld County, SD.
• SD059 Hand County, SD did not use the (HeC) Houdek-Ethan loams, 1 to 6 percent slopes (national symbol 2wkqk) as used in the adjoining SD005 Beadle County, SD.
• SD059 Hand County, SD did not use the (BeD) Betts stony loam, 6 to 40 percent slopes (national symbol cwy3) as used in the adjoining SD005 Beadle County, SD.
• SD059 Hand County, SD did not use the (BfD) Ethan-Betts loams, 9 to 15 percent slopes (national symbol 2wkq8) as used in the adjoining SD005 Beadle County, SD.
• SD059 Hand County, SD did not use the (HgB) Hand-Ethan-Bonilla loams, 1 to 6 percent slopes (national symbol cz3m) as used in the adjoining SD115 Spink County, SD.
• SD059 Hand County, SD did not use the (HgC) Hand-Ethan-Bonilla loams, 2 to 9 percent slopes (national symbol cz3m) as used in the adjoining SD115 Spink County, SD.
• SD059 Hand County, SD did not use the (MmB) Max-Arnegard-Zahl loams, 1 to 6 percent slopes (national symbol cxlf) as used in the adjoining SD049 Faulk County, SD.
• Reference and alternative states within the state and transition model are may not be fully documented and may require additional field sampling for refinement.Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; and Bruce Kunze, Soil Scientist, NRCS. Data Source Sample Period State County SCS-RANGE-417 (0787146059) 9/13/1975 SD Hand SCS-RANGE-417 (1008546069) 9/12/1985 SD Hyde SCS-RANGE-417 (0018546115) 10/31/1985 SD Spink SCS-RANGE-417 (0038546073) 10/30/1985 SD Jerauld SCS-RANGE-417 (0018646073) 10/15/1986 SD Jerauld SCS-RANGE-417 (0018646115) 10/28/1985 SD Spink SCS-RANGE-417 (0018746073) 10/9/1987 SD Jerauld SCS-RANGE-417 (0018746115) 10/22/1987 SD Spink
Other references
Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C. Carpenter, and W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of the Coterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. Washington, DC.
Gilbert, M. C., Whited, P. M., Clairain Jr, E. J., & Smith, R. D. (2006). A Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Prairie Potholes. Washington DC.
Samson, F. B., & Knopf, F. L. (1996). Prairie Conservation Preserving North America's Most Endagered Ecosystem. Washington D.C.: Island Press.
Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. Accessed March 2018.
United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook, Revision 1. Grazing Lands Technology Institute.
United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296.
USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/nasis/)
USDA, NRCS. 2019. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 13 March 2019).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. 2013. Level III and Level IV Ecoregions of the Continental United States. Corvallis, OR, U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, map scale 1:3,000,000. Available at http://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- continental-united-states. (Accessed 13 March 2019).
High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. (http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/)
USDA, NRCS. National Water and Climate Center. (http://wcc.nrcs.usda.gov)
USDA, NRCS. National Range and Pasture Handbook, September 1997
USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center.Contributors
Stan Boltz
Approval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 1/31/2024
Acknowledgments
Contact for Lead Authors: Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS), Redfield Soil Survey Office Redfield, SD; Lance Howe (Lance.Howe@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; and Steve Winter (Steven.Winter@usda.gov), Soil Scientist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD Additional Information Acknowledgment: Jason Hermann (Jason.Hermann@usda.gov), Area Rangeland Management Specialist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD. This Provisional Ecological Site concept has passed both Quality Control and Quality Assurance processes. Officially approved for publication by David Kraft as of 11/12/2020. Non-discrimination Statement In accordance with Federal civil rights law and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) civil rights regulations and policies, the USDA, its Agencies, offices, and employees, and institutions participating in or administering USDA programs are prohibited from discriminating based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, gender identity (including gender expression), sexual orientation, disability, age, marital status, family/parental status, income derived from a public assistance program, political beliefs, or reprisal or retaliation for prior civil rights activity, in any program or activity conducted or funded by USDA (not all bases apply to all programs). Remedies and complaint filing deadlines vary by program or incident. Persons with disabilities who require alternative means of communication for program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, American Sign Language, etc.) should contact the responsible Agency or USDA's TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TTY) or contact USDA through the Federal Relay Service at (800) 877-8339. Additionally, program information may be made available in languages other than English. To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, available online and at any USDA office, or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632- 9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2) fax: (202) 690-7442; or (3) email: program.intake@usda.gov.
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Stan Boltz, Mitch Faulkner, Shane Deranleau Contact for lead author Stan Boltz, stanley.boltz@sd.usda.gov, 605-352-1236 Date 03/15/2011 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
Rills should not be present. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
Barely observable if present. -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Essentially non-existent. Some bunchgrasses may be slightly pedestalled, but no exposed roots will be present. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground less than 5 percent and pathces less than two inches in diameter. -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Active gullies should not be present. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None present. -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Little to no plant litter movement. Plant litter remains in place and is not moved by erosional forces. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil aggregate stability normally a 5 to 6 rating. Typically high root content and organic matter in the soil surface. Soil surface is very resistant to erosion. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Soil surface structure is typically granular, and mollic (higher organic matter) colors of A-horizon down to about 3 to 6 inches. If conditions are other than this, refer to map unit component descriptions for component on which the site occurs. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Healthy, deep-rooted native grass and grass-like species enhance infiltration and reduce runoff. -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
No compaction layer should be present. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Mid, warm-season grasses >Sub-dominant:
Mid and tall, cool-season bunchgrasses = tall warm-season Grasses >Other:
Wheatgrasses = forbs > short, warm-season grasses > grass-like species = shrubsAdditional:
Other native grasses occur in other functional groups in minor amounts. Due to differing root structure and distribution, Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass do not fit into reference plant community F/S groups. -
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little to no evidence of decadence or mortality. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
70-80 percent plant litter cover, roughly 0.25 to 0.5 inches in depth. Litter cover is in contact with the soil surface. -
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
2,000–3,400 lbs./acre air-dry weight, average 2,700 lbs./acre air-dry weight. -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Refer to State and local Noxious Weed List; also Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass. -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
Perennial grasses have vigorous rhizomes and/or tillers.
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