State 1
Reference State

The Reference State represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site (ES). This state was dominated by cool-season grasses. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included frequent fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Mid- and tall-stature grass species can decline and a corresponding increase in short-stature warm-season grasses and cool-season grass-like species will occur. Today, a similar state the Native/Invaded State (State 2) can be found on areas that receive managed grazing and prescribed fire and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. These sites are differentiated by the presence of exotic species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome. On most shallow to gravel ESs within this MLRA, these species have invaded and are now present. It is likely that attaining the Reference State as it is described here (without the presence of exotic herbaceous species) is not possible.

Community 1.1
Needleandthread-Western Wheatgrass-Blue Grama

Interpretations are based primarily on the 1.1 Needleandthread-Western Wheatgrass-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase. This community phase is the most dominant both temporally and spatially. Cool-season grass and grass-like species dominate this plant community, with warm-season grasses being subdominant. The major grass or grass-like species include needleandthread, western wheatgrass, little bluestem, blue grama, and sideoats grama. Other grass and grass-likes species occurring include big bluestem, threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), porcupine grass, plains muhly (Muhlenbergia cuspidata), prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha), and sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus). The vegetation consisted of about 85 percent grass and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. A variety of leguminous and nonleguminous perennial forbs are present in minor amounts. This is a naturally nitrogen deficient plant community.


This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regards to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Community 1.2
Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Needleandthread

This plant community evolved under heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. Dominant grass and grass-like species included blue grama, sideoats grama, threadleaf sedge, green needlegrass, and needleandthread. Grasses of secondary importance included sand dropseed, little bluestem, western wheatgrass, hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), and threeawn (Aristida). Forbs commonly found in this plant community included white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera), and Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya).

This plant community had similar plant composition to the 2.2 Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass.

When compared to the 1.1 Needleandthread-Western Wheatgrass-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase, threadleaf sedge, and blue grama increased. Western wheatgrass and needlegrasses decreased and production of mid- and tall warm-season grasses was also reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 1.2 Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Needleandthread Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing, and prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Needleandthread-Western Wheatgrass-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase.

State 2
Native/Invaded State

This state is very similar to the Reference State. The invasion of introduced warm- and cool-season sod grasses has altered the natural range of variability for this ecological site (ES). This state still has strong components of both warm- and cool-season grass species, but invasive introduced cool-season sod grasses are now present in all community phases of this state. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this state include grazing by domestic livestock and a lack of fire. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictate the dynamics that occur within this state. The mid- and tall warm- and cool-season native grasses can decline and an increase in introduced sod grasses will occur. Many times, this state appears as a mosaic of community phases caused primarily by continuous season-long grazing.

Community 2.1
Needleandthread-Western Wheatgrass-Blue Grama

This community phase most closely resembles the Reference State in appearance and ecological functions (e.g., hydrologic, biotic, and soil and site stability). The cool-season dominated community is maintained with grazing systems that allow for adequate recovery periods following grazing events and potentially the combination of grazing and prescribed burning which closely mimics the natural disturbance regime.

This community phase closely resembles the 1.1 Needleandthread-Western Wheatgrass-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase. The basic difference is the presence of minor amounts of introduced cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and forbs. This is likely a naturally nitrogen deficient plant community. A change in the nutrient cycle on this ES possibly due to the introduction of nonnative species may be a causative factor leading to the eventual dominance of cool-season introduced grasses in the Invaded State (State 3).

Community 2.2
Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Kentucky Bluegrass

Grazing pressure reduces the mid and tall less grazing tolerant species, while the shorter more grazing tolerant species increase. Litter amounts are reduced and energy capture shifts to slightly earlier in the growing season due to a decline in the later maturing native grass component and an increase in the earlier maturing grass-likes and nonnative grasses. Kentucky bluegrass increases and may approach dominance in this community. Vegetation consists of about 80 percent grass and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. Blue grama, threadleaf sedge, Kentucky bluegrass, and fringed sagewort (Artemisia frigida) are the dominant species in the early stages of this community phase. Significant grass species include Kentucky bluegrass, needleandthread, red threeawn (Aristida purpurea), and sand dropseed. Other grasses present include western wheatgrass, green needlegrass, and prairie Junegrass. The common forbs include white sagebrush, goldenrod (Oligoneuron), green sagewort (Artemisia campestris), heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), and scurfpea (Psoralidium). Fringed sagewort (Artemisia frigida), brittle cactus (Opuntia fragilis), plains pricklypear (Opuntia polyacantha), and rose (Rosa spp.) are the principal shrubs.

This community phase is often dispersed throughout the pasture, in an overgrazed or undergrazed pattern, typically referred to as patch grazing. Some areas (overgrazed) will exhibit the impacts of heavy use, while other areas (undergrazed) will have a build-up of litter and a high amount of plant decadence. This is a typical pattern found in properly stocked pastures grazed season-long. In the undergrazed patches, litter buildup reduces plant vigor and density and native seedling recruitment declines. Due to a lack of tiller stimulation and sunlight, native bunchgrasses typically develop dead centers and native rhizomatous grasses are limited to small colonies. In the overgrazed patches, plant vigor is reduced and the competitive advantage goes towards the grazing tolerant short-statured species such as Kentucky bluegrass and sedge.

This community phase is approaching the threshold which would readily lead to the Invaded State. If management is significantly altered, this community phase can still be reverted back to the 2.1 Needleandthread-Western Wheatgrass-Blue Gama community phase. Grazing management that allows for adequate recovery periods will tend to restore the ecological functions of this site.

Fire can play a role in reducing the introduced cool-season species. The combination of grazing and fire may be the most effective in moving this community phase towards a community resembling the interpretive plant community. Soil erosion is low. Infiltration is reduced, while runoff is increased compared to the interpretive plant community.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 2.2 Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Needleandthread-Western Wheatgrass-Blue Gama Plant Community Phase.

State 3
Invaded State

This state is the result of invasion and dominance of introduced cool-season sod grasses. This state is characterized by the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass and an increasing thatch layer that effectively blocks introduction of other plants into the system. Once the state is well established, even drastic events such as high intensity fires driven by high fuel loads of litter and thatch will not result in more than a very short-term reduction of these two species. These events may reduce the dominance of the sod grasses, but due to the large amount of rhizomes in the soil, there is no opportunity for the native species to establish and dominate before the sod grasses rebound and again dominate the system. Plant litter accumulation tends to favor the more shade tolerant introduced grass species. The nutrient cycle is also impaired and the result is typically a higher level of nitrogen which also favors the introduced species. Increasing plant litter decreases the amount of sunlight reaching plant crowns thereby shifting competitive advantage to shade tolerant introduced grass species. Studies indicate that soil biological activity is altered and this shift apparently exploits the soil microclimate and encourages growth of the introduced grass species. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot cause a reduction in sodgrass dominance. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition.

Community 3.1
Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass-Crested Wheatgrass

This plant community phase is a result of extended periods of non-use and no fire. It is characterized by a dominance of smooth bromegrass and Kentucky bluegrass. Crested wheatgrass is also present in varying amounts within this plant community phase but will rarely exceed 20 percent. The dominance by exotic species is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short, as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced.

Community 3.2
Kentucky Bluegrass Sod-Forbs

This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, sedge, and blue grama. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface as well. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.

Community 3.3
Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

This plant community developed under continuous heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances (e.g., heavy use areas, defoliation by rodents, etc.). The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable, but often include nonnative invasive and early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites. This community can be renovated to improve the production capability; however, if management changes are not made the vegetation could revert back invasive or early seral species.

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass Sod-Forbs Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 3.3A
Community 3.3 to 3.2

This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass Sod-Forbs Plant Community Phase.

State 4
Crop Production State

This state is characterized by the production of annual crops using a variety of tillage and cropping systems along with management practices.

Community 4.1
Annual Crops

This plant community developed with the use of a variety of tillage systems and cropping systems for the production of annual crops including corn, soybeans, wheat, and a variety of other crops.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Non-use and no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, or heavy continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Transition T2A, T2B
State 2 to 3

Heavy continuous grazing at the same time of year, each year, without adequate recovery periods or chronic heavy grazing will shift this community to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass Sod/Forbs Plant Community Phase in the 3.0 Invaded State.

Constraints to recovery.Non-use and no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.1 Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass-Crested Wheatgrass Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3).

Context dependence.Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass Sod-Forbs Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Restoration pathway T3A, T3B
State 3 to 2

Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead the 3.1 Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass-Crested Wheatgrass Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2). Seeding followed by long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) may lead this Invaded State (State 3) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Transition T3C
State 3 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Restoration pathway T4A
State 4 to 2

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 4) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Restoration pathway T4B, T4C
State 4 to 3

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 4) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3). Cropping followed by abandonment may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3) and more specifically to the 3.3 Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer Plant Community Phase.