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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
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Figure 1. Mapped extent
Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 053C–Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains
The Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains (53C) is located within the Northern Great Plains Region. It is entirely in South Dakota encompassing about 3,990 square miles (Figure 1). The elevation ranges from 1,300 to 2,300 feet. The MLRA is level to gently rolling till plains including many areas of potholes. A terminal moraine occurs in the southern end of the MLRA. Moderately steep and steep slopes are adjacent to the major valleys. The headwaters of many creeks in central South Dakota occur in the high-lying MLRA. (USDA-NRCS 2006).
The dominant soil orders in this MLRA are Mollisols and Inceptisols. The soils in the area dominantly have a mesic soil temperature regime, an ustic soil moisture regime, and mixed or smectitic mineralogy. They generally are very deep, well drained or moderately well drained, and are loamy or clayey. This area supports natural prairie vegetation characterized by western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), needleandthread (Hesperostipa comata), and green needlegrass (Nassella viridula). Little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), and prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia) are important species on steeper sites. Western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis) and prairie rose (Rosa arkansana) are commonly dispersed throughout the area. (USDA-NRCS 2006).Classification relationships
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains (53C) (USDA-NRCS 2006)
USFS Subregions: Northeastern Glaciated Plains Section (331E); Missouri Coteau Subsection (331Ea); Western Great Plains Section (331F); Missouri Breaks Subsection (331Fe); Western Glaciated Plains Section (332B); Southern Missouri Coteau Slope Subsection (332Bd, 332Be); North Central Great Plains Section (332D); Southern Missouri Coteau Slope Subsection (332Dd); Southern Missouri Coteau Subsection (332De) - (Cleland et al. 2007).
US EPA Level IV Ecoregion: Missouri Coteau (42a); Southern Missouri Coteau (42e); Southern Missouri Coteau Slope (42f) - (USEPA 2013)Ecological site concept
The Sandy ecological site typically occurs in an upland area. Soils vary from moderately well drained to somewhat excessively drained. The surface and subsoil textures are sandy loam, fine sandy loam, and loamy very fine sand. Slopes can range from 0 to 40 percent.
Vegetation in the Reference State is dominated by warm season grasses such as big bluestem and prairie sandreed, and cool-season needlegrasses. Forbs include cudweed sagewort, prairie coneflower, and western yarrow. Non-native grasses such as smooth bromegrass and Kentucky bluegrass or native conifers such as Eastern Red Cedar may invade due to shifts in disturbance regime.Associated sites
R053CY010SD Loamy
These sites occur on upland areas. Soils are well drained. The surface and subsoil textures are loam, silt loam, silty clay loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam, and very fine sandy loam. The central concept soil series are Agar, Glenham, and Highmore, but other series are included.
R053CY012SD Thin Upland
These sites occur on uplands. Soils are well drained and will effervesce with acid at or near the surface. The central concept soil series are Betts and Java, but other series are included.
R053CY020SD Loamy Overflow
These sites occur in upland swales. Soils are moderately well drained. The surface and subsoil textures are loam, silt loam, silty clay loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam, and very fine sandy loam. The central concept soil series are Mobridge and Onita, but other series are included.
Similar sites
R053CY010SD Loamy
The Loamy site may occur similar in landscape position, but the surface and subsoil textures are silt loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay loam, and very fine sandy loam. (more green needlegrass and western wheatgrass; less needleandthread)
R053CY020SD Loamy Overflow
The Loamy Overflow site may occur similar in landscape position, but the surface and subsoil textures are silt loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay loam, and very fine sandy loam. (more big bluestem; higher production)
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree Not specified
Shrub Not specified
Herbaceous (1) Andropogon gerardii
(2) Calamovilfa longifoliaPhysiographic features
This site occurs on nearly level to steeply sloping uplands.
Figure 2. Distribution map
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) Plain
(2) Terrace
(3) Drainageway
Flooding frequency None Ponding frequency None Elevation 1300 – 2300 ft Slope 0 – 23 % Water table depth 80 in Aspect Aspect is not a significant factor Climatic features
MLRA 53C is considered to have a continental climate – cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature may also abound. The climate is the result of this MLRA’s location near the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the Northern Great Plains and air masses move freely across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.
Annual precipitation typically ranges from 15 to 25 inches per year. The average annual temperature is about 45°F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 15°F (Stephan, South Dakota (SD)), to about 16°F (Onida 4 NW, SD). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 72°F (Stephan, SD), to about 74°F (Onida 4 NW, SD). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 58°F. This large annual range attests to the continental nature of this area's climate. Hourly winds are estimated to average about 12 miles per hour (mph) annually, ranging from about 13 mph during the spring to about 11 mph during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 mph.
Growth of cool-season plants begins in early to mid-March, slowing or ceasing in late June. Warm-season plants begin growth about mid-May and continue to early or mid-September. Greenup of cool-season plants may occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.Table 3 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 110-130 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) 130-150 days Precipitation total (characteristic range) 20-20 in Frost-free period (actual range) 100-130 days Freeze-free period (actual range) 130-160 days Precipitation total (actual range) 20-20 in Frost-free period (average) 120 days Freeze-free period (average) 140 days Precipitation total (average) 20 in Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 3. Monthly precipitation range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range
Characteristic rangeActual rangeBarLineFigure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range
BarLineFigure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 8 Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
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(1) HARROLD 12 SSW [USC00393608], Pierre, SD
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(2) STEPHAN 2 NW [USC00397992], Highmore, SD
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(3) WESSINGTON SPRINGS [USC00399070], Wessington Springs, SD
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(4) GETTYSBURG 13W [USC00393302], Gettysburg, SD
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(5) GETTYSBURG [USC00393294], Gettysburg, SD
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(6) HIGHMORE 23 N [USC00393838], Highmore, SD
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(7) ONIDA 4 NW [USC00396292], Onida, SD
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(8) PIERRE RGNL AP [USW00024025], Pierre, SD
">Influencing water features
No riparian areas or wetland features are directly associated with this site.
Soil features
The features common to all soils in this site are the loamy fine sand or fine sandy loam textured surface layers and slopes of 0 to 23 percent. The soils in this site are from well-drained to excessively drained. They formed primarily in eolian deposits or sandy alluvium. The surface layer is 8 to 17 inches thick. This site should show slight to no evidence of rills, wind scoured areas, or pedestalled plants. Water flow paths are broken, irregular in appearance, or discontinuous. The soil surface is stable and intact. Subsurface soil layers are not restrictive to water movement and root penetration.The central concept soil series for this site is Henkin, but other series are included.
These soils are mainly susceptible to water erosion. The hazard of water erosion increases on slopes greater than about 10 percent. Loss of 50 percent or more of the surface layer of the soils on this site can result in a shift in species composition and/or production.
Access Web Soil Survey (http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/) for specific local soils information.Table 4. Representative soil features
Surface texture (1) Loam
(2) Sandy loam
(3) Fine sandy loam
Drainage class Well drained to excessively drained Permeability class Moderately slow to moderate Soil depth 80 in Surface fragment cover <=3" Not specified Surface fragment cover >3" Not specified Available water capacity
(0-40in)4 – 6 in Calcium carbonate equivalent
(0-40in)0 – 30 % Electrical conductivity
(0-40in)0 – 2 mmhos/cm Sodium adsorption ratio
(0-40in)Not specified Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(0-40in)6.1 – 8.4 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 41 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 3 % Ecological dynamics
The information in this Ecological Site Description, including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed based on historical data, current field data, professional experience, and a review of the scientific literature. As a result, all possible scenarios or plant species may not be included. Key indicator plant species, disturbances, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.
The site which is located in the Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains Region developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions and included natural influence of large herding herbivores and occasional fire. Changes will occur in the plant communities due to weather fluctuations and/or management actions. Under adverse impacts, a relatively rapid decline in vegetative vigor and composition can occur. Under favorable conditions the site has the potential to resemble the Reference State. Interpretations for this site are based primarily on the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase. This community phase and the Reference State have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes.
Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts also have been considered. Plant community phases, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience. Due to a general invasion of exotic species (such as Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) and smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis) across the MLRA within this site, returning to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase may not be possible. Today, the 3.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase most resembles the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase within the Reference State (State 1).
This ecological site (ES) has been grazed by domestic livestock since they have been introduced into the area. The introduction of domestic livestock and the use of fencing and reliable water sources have changed the ecological dynamics of this site. Heavy continuous grazing (season-long grazing during the typical growing season of April through October and/or repeated seasonal grazing during the same time of year each year) without adequate recovery periods following grazing events causes departure from the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase. Sedge (Carex), and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) will increase and eventually develop into a sod. Western wheatgrss will increase initially and then begin to decrease. Needleandthread, porcupine grass (Hesperostipa spartea), sideoats grama, big bluestem and little bluestem will decrease in frequency and production. Extended periods of nonuse and/or lack of fire will result in excessive litter and a plant community dominated by cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). Extended periods of no surface fire could result in the invasion of conifers in which eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) and Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) will increase and could eventually dominate the site.
Following the state and transition diagram are narratives for each of the described states and community phases. These may not represent every possibility, but they are the most prevalent and repeatable states/community phases. The plant composition tables shown below have been developed from the best available knowledge at the time of this revision. As more data are collected, some of these community phases and/or states may be revised or removed, and new ones may be added. The main purpose for including the descriptions here is to capture the current knowledge and experience at the time of this revision.
The following is a diagram that illustrates the common plant community phases that can occur on the site and the transition and community pathways between them. The ecological processes will be discussed in more detail in the plant community descriptions following the diagram.
The pie charts may not add up to 100% due to internal rounding error.State and transition model
Custom diagramStandard diagram
Figure 9. State-And-Transition model
Figure 10. Legend
Figure 11. Matrix
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)
States 2 and 6 (additional transitions)
T1A - Heavy continuous grazing T1B - Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion T1C - Conifer invasion, no fire T1D - Tillage T2A - Tillage T3A and T3B - Non-use, no fire, heavy continuous grazing T3C - Tillage T4A - Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning T4C - Conifer invasion, no fire T4B - Tillage T5A - Brush management, prescribed burning T5B & T5D - Brush management, prescribed burning T5C - Brush management T5E - Brush management, tillage T6A - Seeding T6B and T6C - Seeding, cropping followed by abandonment State 1 submodel, plant communities
1.1A - Heavy continuous grazing 1.1B - Prescribed burning 1.2A - Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning 1.3A - Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
3.1A - Heavy continuous grazing State 4 submodel, plant communities
4.1A - Heavy continuous grazing 4.2A - Prescribed grazing with recovery periods 4.3A - Time w/wo disturbances State 5 submodel, plant communities
5.1A - Heavy continuous grazing, non-use, no fire, invasion 5.2A - No fire State 6 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference StateThe Sandy site typically occurs in an upland area. Soils vary from moderately well drained to somewhat excessively drained. The surface and subsoil textures are sandy loam, fine sandy loam, loamy very fine sand. The central concept soil series is Henkin, but others are included. This state represents the natural range of variability that dominates the dynamics of this ecological site (ES). This state was codominated by cool- and warm-season grasses. Before European settlement, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included periodic fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Frequent surface fires (3 to 5 years) and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Cool-season and taller warm-season grasses would have declined and a corresponding increase in short, warm-season grasses would have occurred. Today, a similar state the Native/Invaded State (State 3) can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. These sites are differentiated by the presence of exotic species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass. On most Sandy ESs within this MLRA, these species have invaded and are now present. It is likely that attaining the reference state as it is described here (without the presence of exotic herbaceous species) is not possible.
Community 1.1
Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie SandreedInterpretations are based primarily on the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase (this is also considered to be climax). The potential vegetation was about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses subdominant. The major grasses included big bluestem, needleandthread, prairie sandreed, little bluestem, and porcupine grass. Other grass or grass-like species included sideoats grama, western wheatgrass, blue grama, threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), and slender wheatgrass (Elmus trachycaulus). This plant community was resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high drought tolerance. This was a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 1820 2492 3025 Forb 125 210 320 Shrub/Vine 55 98 155 Total 2000 2800 3500 Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5304 , Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 7 17 25 25 15 7 1 0 0 Community 1.2
Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed-Big BluestemThis plant community evolved under heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses included needleandthread, prairie sandreed, big bluestem, little bluestem, western wheatgrass, threadleaf sedge, and blue grama. Grasses of secondary importance included sideoats grama, porcupine grass, and sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus). Forbs commonly found in this plant community included cudweed sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana), prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera), and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). This plant community had similar plant composition to the 3.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass.
When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase, needleandthread, threadleaf sedge, and blue grama increased. Big bluestem and porcupine grass decreased and production of mid- and tall warm-season grasses was also reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term.Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5302 , Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 10 23 34 15 6 5 4 0 0 Community 1.3
Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Prairie SandreedThis plant community was a result of fire occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years). This phase could have also resulted from a combination of grazing events immediately following early season fire (i.e., large ungulates attracted to highly nutritious vegetative growth following a fire). These events would have caused a reduction in cool-season grasses and an increase in warm-season grasses. The warm-season grasses were more tolerant of shorter return intervals of fire and would have increased in vigor and production leading to a temporary shift to this phase. Needlegrasses would have decreased most significantly amongst the cool-season grasses. The potential vegetation was about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community was dominated by warm-season grasses. The major grasses included big bluestem, little bluestem, prairie sandreed, and switchgrass. Grasses of secondary importance included sideoats grama, blue grama, and sand dropseed. Forbs commonly found in this plant community included scurfpea (Psoralidium), stiff sunflower (Helianthus pauciflorus), and hairy goldaster (Chrysopsis villosa).
When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase, big bluestem, little bluestem, and prairie sandreed have slightly increased and needlegrasses have decreased. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through fire return intervals returning to normal and moderate grazing use. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term.Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5305 , Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains, warm-season dominant.. Warm-season dominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 2 5 15 25 30 15 7 1 0 0 Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 1.2 Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed-Big Bluestem Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3Prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels, along with occasional grazing events immediately following early season fire caused a reduction in cool-season grasses and an increase in warm-season grasses. The warm-season grasses were more tolerant of shorter return intervals of fire, which would increase in vigor and production leading to a temporary shift to the 1.3 Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1Prescribed grazing, and prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.1Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest or prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may convert this plant community to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase.
State 2
Shortgrass Sod StateThis state is the result of heavy continuous grazing, and in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. This state is dominated by threadleaf sedge and blue grama forming a dense sod layer that effectively blocks introduction of other plants into the system. Taller cool-season species will decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot cause a reduction in the sod grass dominance.
Community 2.1
Threadleaf Sedge-Blue GramaThis plant community evolved under heavy continuous season grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses typically included threadleaf sedge, and blue grama. Sand dropseed tends to increase on the site. Grasses of secondary importance included western wheatgrass and needleandthread. Forbs commonly found in this plant community included cudweed sagewort, green sagewort (Artemisia campestris), and western yarrow. This vegetation state was very resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing. This plant community was less productive than other phases. The thick sod prevented other species from getting established due to decreased infiltration and increased runoff.
Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5302 , Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 10 23 34 15 6 5 4 0 0 State 3
Native/Invaded StateThis state represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression and the presence of exotic herbaceous species (especially smooth bromegrass and Kentucky bluegrass). This state is dominated by cool- and warm-season grasses. It can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and prescribed burning and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Taller cool-season species can decline and a corresponding increase in short statured grass will occur.
Community 3.1
Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie SandreedThis plant community phase is similar to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase, but it also contains minor amounts of non-native invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (up to about 15 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 85 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. The community is dominated by warm-season grasses, with cool-season grasses subdominant. The major grasses include big bluestem, needleandthread, prairie sandreed, little bluestem, and porcupine grass. Other grass or grass-like species include sideoats grama, western wheatgrass, blue grama, threadleaf sedge, Indiangrass, switchgrass, and slender wheatgrass. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regards to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5302 , Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 10 23 34 15 6 5 4 0 0 Community 3.2
Little Bluestem-Needleandthread-Kentucky BluegrassThis plant community is a result of heavy continuous grazing, continuous season-long grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include little bluestem, needleandthread, Kentucky bluegrass, western wheatgrass, prairie sandreed, threadleaf sedge, and blue grama. Grasses of secondary importance include sideoats grama, porcupine grass, and sand dropseed. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include cudweed sagewort, prairie coneflower, and western yarrow.
When compared to the 1.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase, threadleaf sedge, needleandthread, and blue grama have increased. Big bluestem, little bluestem, and porcupine grass have decreased, and production of mid- and tall warm-season grasses has also been reduced. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present are well adapted to grazing; however, species composition can be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term.Figure 18. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 6. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 1280 1914 2295 Forb 100 220 385 Shrub/Vine 20 66 120 Total 1400 2200 2800 Figure 19. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5302 , Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 3 10 23 34 15 6 5 4 0 0 Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 3.2 Little Bluestem-Needleandthread-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 3.1 Big Bluestem-Needleandthread-Prairie Sandreed Plant Community Phase.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing State 4
Invaded StateThis state is the result of invasion and dominance of introduced species. This state is characterized by the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass, and an increasing thatch layer that effectively blocks introduction of other plants into the system. Plant litter accumulation tends to favor the more shade tolerant introduced grass species. The nutrient cycle is also impaired and the result is typically a higher level of nitrogen which also favors the introduced species. Increasing plant litter decreases the amount of sunlight reaching plant crowns thereby shifting competitive advantage to shade tolerant introduced grass species. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Studies indicate that soil biological activity is altered and this shift apparently exploits the soil microclimate and encourages growth of the introduced grass species. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot cause a reduction in the invasive grass dominance. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition.
Once the state is well established, even drastic events such as high intensity fires driven by high fuel loads of litter and thatch will not result in more than a very short term reduction of Kentucky bluegrass. These events may reduce the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, but due to the large amount of rhizomes in the soil, there is no opportunity for the native species to establish and dominate before Kentucky bluegrass rebounds and again dominates the system.Community 4.1
Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky BluegrassThis plant community phase is a result of extended periods of nonuse and no fire. It is characterized by a dominance of smooth bromegrass and Kentucky bluegrass. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short, as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced.
Figure 20. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 7. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 1645 2610 3040 Forb 130 218 335 Shrub/Vine 25 72 125 Total 1800 2900 3500 Figure 21. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5301 , Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 4 12 25 36 10 5 4 4 0 0 Community 4.2
Kentucky Bluegrass-Threadleaf SedgeThis plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, threadleaf sedge, and blue grama. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.
Figure 22. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 8. Annual production by plant type
Plant type Low
(lb/acre)Representative value
(lb/acre)High
(lb/acre)Grass/Grasslike 1050 1629 2380 Forb 35 126 245 Shrub/Vine 15 45 75 Total 1100 1800 2700 Figure 23. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD5301 , Southern Dark Brown Glaciated Plains, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec J F M A M J J A S O N D 0 0 4 12 25 36 10 5 4 4 0 0 Community 4.3
Annual Pioneer-Perennial PioneerThis plant community developed under continuous heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances (e.g., heavy use areas, defoliation by rodents, etc.). The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable but often include nonnative invasive and early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites.
Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Threadleaf Sedge Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 4.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing Pathway 4.3A
Community 4.3 to 4.2This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Threadleaf Sedge Plant Community Phase.
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing Integrated Pest Management (IPM) State 5
Conifer/Invaded StateThis state is dominated (canopy exceeds 20 percent of total surface area) by areas where trees have become established or have encroached onto the site due to the absence of periodic fire. This state is dominated by eastern redcedar or Rocky Mountain juniper with cool-season grasses being subdominant. The plant community can develop into a closed canopy that impedes the reproductive capability of the major native perennial grass species. A single eastern red cedar tree with a 7 foot crown diameter eliminates the equivalent of 3 pounds of forage. Further, the forage potential of a pasture with 250 mature eastern red cedar trees per acre (or one tree every thirteen feet) is reduce by 50 percent. It is suggested that reducing stocking rates by 10 percent for every 50 trees per acre. The increase in tree canopy which is a result of a disruption of the natural, and human related fire regimes that occurred prior to European settlement, which kept trees from encroaching much of the grasslands.
Community 5.1
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/NeedleandthreadThis plant community evolved due to the invasion of conifers, such as eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. This phase was a result of the absence of periodic fire. These events may cause a reduction in warm-season grasses and an increase in cool-season grasses and allow for the encroachment of conifers. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 50 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 30 percent trees. Dominant grasses and grass-likes include big bluestem, needleandthread, prairie sandreed, and switchgrass. As the canopy increases, warm-season grasses tend to decrease as the cool-season grasses increase. Forbs will be diverse.
Trees species will include eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. When compared to the 1.1 Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed-Needleandthread Plant Community, coniferous trees have increased significantly and herbaceous component has decreased. This plant community is susceptible to the encroachment of eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper.Community 5.2
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky BluegrassThis plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing or non-use and no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years). When compared to the 5.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Needleandthread Plant Community, the amount of nonnative invasive cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass have increased significantly.
It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, threadleaf sedge, and blue grama. The dominance of Kentucky bluegrass is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Production is limited to the sod forming species. The period that palatability is high is relatively short, as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Infiltration continues to decrease and runoff increases, energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. Nutrient cycling is limited by root depth of the dominate species. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.Community 5.3
Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain JuniperThis plant community phase is a result of no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years). Coniferous trees have increased significantly, and the herbaceous component has decreased. With the dominance of the coniferous trees such as eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper, the canopy covers the area and grass species are unable to survive. Grass production for livestock is severely limited. Prescribed burning before the juniper species reach maturity and are still susceptible to fire (< 5 foot in height), or mechanical brush management can be used to maintain or recover 5.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2Non-use or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and/or heavy continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will shift this plant community to the 5.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.
Pathway 5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.3No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will shift this plant community to the 5.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase.
State 6
Crop Production StateThis state is characterized by the production of annual crops using a variety of tillage and cropping systems along with management practices. Cropping on this site is enabled during years with drier than normal precipitation or with artificial drainage (surface or subsurface).
Community 6.1
Annual CropsThis plant community developed with the use of a variety of tillage systems and cropping systems for the production of annual crops including corn, soybeans, wheat, and a variety of other crops.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season, and often at the same time of year each year, typically beginning early in the season) will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Threadleaf Sedge-Blue Grama Plant Community Phase within the Short Grass Sod State (State 2).
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3Non-use and no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and heavy continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Transition T1C
State 1 to 5No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and invasion of conifer will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 5.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Needleandthread Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5).
Transition T1D
State 1 to 6Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Transition T2A
State 2 to 6Tillage
Transition T3A and T3B
State 3 to 4T3A – Non-use and no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Smooth Bromegrass-Kentucky Bluegrass Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4). T3B – Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 4.2 Kentucky Bluegrass-Threadleaf Sedge Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 4). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling.
Transition T3C
State 3 to 6Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Restoration pathway T4A
State 4 to 3Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Conservation practices
Prescribed Grazing Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Transition T4C
State 4 to 5No surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and invasion of conifer will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 5.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5).
Transition T4B
State 4 to 6Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Restoration pathway T5A
State 5 to 1Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 5.1 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Needleandthread Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Reference State (State 1).
Restoration pathway T5B & T5D
State 5 to 3T5B - Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 5.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3). T5D – Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with prescribed burning occurring at relatively frequent intervals (3 to 5 years) and a return to normal disturbance regime levels may lead this 5.3 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Restoration pathway T5C
State 5 to 4Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers may lead this 5.2 Eastern Redcedar-Rocky Mountain Juniper/Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase within the Conifer/Invaded State (State 5) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4).
Transition T5E
State 5 to 6Brush management which would include the mechanical removal of the conifers, coupled with tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 6.1 Annual Crops Plant Community Phase within the Crop Production State (State 6).
Restoration pathway T6A
State 6 to 3Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 6) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 3).
Restoration pathway T6B and T6C
State 6 to 4T6B – Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 6) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4). T6C – Cropping followed by abandonment may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 4) and more specifically to the 4.3 Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer Plant Community Phase.
Additional community tables
Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Tall Warm-Season Grasses 420–840 big bluestem ANGE Andropogon gerardii 280–560 – prairie sandreed CALO Calamovilfa longifolia 140–560 – switchgrass PAVI2 Panicum virgatum 28–140 – Indiangrass SONU2 Sorghastrum nutans 0–84 – 2 Cool-Season Bunchgrasses 420–700 needle and thread HECOC8 Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata 280–560 – porcupinegrass HESP11 Hesperostipa spartea 56–280 – green needlegrass NAVI4 Nassella viridula 0–140 – Canada wildrye ELCA4 Elymus canadensis 0–84 – 3 Mid Warm-Season Grasses 140–420 sideoats grama BOCU Bouteloua curtipendula 56–280 – little bluestem SCSC Schizachyrium scoparium 140–280 – 4 Wheatgrass 140–280 western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 140–280 – slender wheatgrass ELTR7 Elymus trachycaulus 0–140 – 5 Short Warm-Season Grasses 84–224 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 56–196 – sand dropseed SPCR Sporobolus cryptandrus 28–84 – 6 Other Native Grasses 56–196 Grass-like (not a true grass) 2GL Grass-like (not a true grass) 0–140 – prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 28–84 – thin paspalum PASE5 Paspalum setaceum 0–56 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 28–56 – fall rosette grass DIWI5 Dichanthelium wilcoxianum 0–56 – sand lovegrass ERTR3 Eragrostis trichodes 0–56 – 7 Grass-likes 140–280 threadleaf sedge CAFI Carex filifolia 56–224 – Grass-like (not a true grass) 2GL Grass-like (not a true grass) 28–140 – Forb8 Forbs 140–280 Forb, native 2FN Forb, native 28–84 – stiff sunflower HEPA19 Helianthus pauciflorus 28–84 – hairy false goldenaster HEVI4 Heterotheca villosa 0–56 – hoary puccoon LICA12 Lithospermum canescens 28–56 – dotted blazing star LIPU Liatris punctata 28–56 – beardtongue PENST Penstemon 28–56 – scurfpea PSORA2 Psoralidium 28–56 – upright prairie coneflower RACO3 Ratibida columnifera 28–56 – goldenrod SOLID Solidago 28–56 – white heath aster SYER Symphyotrichum ericoides 28–56 – American vetch VIAM Vicia americana 28–56 – scarlet beeblossom GACO5 Gaura coccinea 28–56 – white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 28–56 – false boneset BREU Brickellia eupatorioides 0–56 – purple prairie clover DAPU5 Dalea purpurea 28–56 – blacksamson echinacea ECAN2 Echinacea angustifolia 0–28 – American licorice GLLE3 Glycyrrhiza lepidota 0–28 – curlycup gumweed GRSQ Grindelia squarrosa 0–28 – western yarrow ACMIO Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis 0–28 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 0–28 – rush skeletonplant LYJU Lygodesmia juncea 0–28 – prairie groundsel PAPL12 Packera plattensis 0–28 – Shrub/Vine9 Shrubs 56–140 leadplant AMCA6 Amorpha canescens 28–112 – rose ROSA5 Rosa 28–56 – snowberry SYMPH Symphoricarpos 0–56 – Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) 0–56 – prairie sagewort ARFR4 Artemisia frigida 0–28 – Table 10. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 11. Community 1.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 12. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 13. Community 3.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 14. Community 3.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Tall Warm-Season Grasses 110–440 prairie sandreed CALO Calamovilfa longifolia 44–330 – big bluestem ANGE Andropogon gerardii 0–220 – switchgrass PAVI2 Panicum virgatum 0–44 – 2 Cool-Season Bunchgrasses 220–550 needle and thread HECOC8 Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata 220–550 – porcupinegrass HESP11 Hesperostipa spartea 0–110 – green needlegrass NAVI4 Nassella viridula 0–44 – 3 Mid Warm-Season Grasses 22–220 little bluestem SCSC Schizachyrium scoparium 0–220 – sideoats grama BOCU Bouteloua curtipendula 22–110 – 4 Wheatgrass 44–220 western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 44–220 – 5 Short Warm-Season Grasses 110–286 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 66–264 – sand dropseed SPCR Sporobolus cryptandrus 22–110 – 6 Other Native Grasses 22–110 Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 2GRAM Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 0–110 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 0–44 – fall rosette grass DIWI5 Dichanthelium wilcoxianum 0–44 – prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 22–44 – 7 Grass-likes 110–264 threadleaf sedge CAFI Carex filifolia 66–264 – Grass-like (not a true grass) 2GL Grass-like (not a true grass) 22–110 – 8 Non-Native Grasses 110–330 Kentucky bluegrass POPR Poa pratensis 110–330 – quackgrass ELRE4 Elymus repens 0–110 – smooth brome BRIN2 Bromus inermis 0–110 – brome BROMU Bromus 22–110 – cheatgrass BRTE Bromus tectorum 0–44 – Forb9 Forbs 110–330 Forb, introduced 2FI Forb, introduced 0–110 – white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 22–88 – scurfpea PSORA2 Psoralidium 22–88 – goldenrod SOLID Solidago 22–88 – white heath aster SYER Symphyotrichum ericoides 22–66 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 22–66 – upright prairie coneflower RACO3 Ratibida columnifera 22–44 – hairy false goldenaster HEVI4 Heterotheca villosa 0–44 – Forb, native 2FN Forb, native 0–44 – western yarrow ACMIO Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis 0–44 – curlycup gumweed GRSQ Grindelia squarrosa 0–44 – stiff sunflower HEPA19 Helianthus pauciflorus 0–22 – false boneset BREU Brickellia eupatorioides 0–22 – purple prairie clover DAPU5 Dalea purpurea 0–22 – scarlet beeblossom GACO5 Gaura coccinea 0–22 – American licorice GLLE3 Glycyrrhiza lepidota 0–22 – hoary puccoon LICA12 Lithospermum canescens 0–22 – dotted blazing star LIPU Liatris punctata 0–22 – rush skeletonplant LYJU Lygodesmia juncea 0–22 – beardtongue PENST Penstemon 0–22 – American vetch VIAM Vicia americana 0–22 – Shrub/Vine10 Shrubs 22–110 Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) 0–44 – prairie sagewort ARFR4 Artemisia frigida 0–44 – rose ROSA5 Rosa 22–44 – snowberry SYMPH Symphoricarpos 0–44 – leadplant AMCA6 Amorpha canescens 0–22 – Table 15. Community 4.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Cool-Season Bunchgrasses 0–290 needle and thread HECOC8 Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata 0–290 – green needlegrass NAVI4 Nassella viridula 0–87 – 2 Mid Warm-Season Grasses 0–145 sideoats grama BOCU Bouteloua curtipendula 0–145 – little bluestem SCSC Schizachyrium scoparium 0–145 – 3 Wheatgrass 0–290 western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 0–290 – 4 Short Warm-Season Grasses 0–145 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 0–145 – sand dropseed SPCR Sporobolus cryptandrus 0–87 – 5 Other Native Grasses 0–145 Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 2GRAM Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 0–116 – prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 0–87 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 0–58 – fall rosette grass DIWI5 Dichanthelium wilcoxianum 0–29 – 6 Grass-likes 29–174 threadleaf sedge CAFI Carex filifolia 29–174 – Grass-like (not a true grass) 2GL Grass-like (not a true grass) 0–87 – 7 Non-Native Grasses 725–2030 smooth brome BRIN2 Bromus inermis 290–1885 – Kentucky bluegrass POPR Poa pratensis 145–870 – quackgrass ELRE4 Elymus repens 0–435 – brome BROMU Bromus 29–290 – cheatgrass BRTE Bromus tectorum 0–58 – Forb8 Forbs 145–290 Forb, introduced 2FI Forb, introduced 29–145 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 29–116 – white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 29–87 – scurfpea PSORA2 Psoralidium 29–87 – goldenrod SOLID Solidago 29–87 – white heath aster SYER Symphyotrichum ericoides 29–58 – western yarrow ACMIO Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis 0–58 – curlycup gumweed GRSQ Grindelia squarrosa 0–58 – hairy false goldenaster HEVI4 Heterotheca villosa 0–29 – rush skeletonplant LYJU Lygodesmia juncea 0–29 – upright prairie coneflower RACO3 Ratibida columnifera 0–29 – purple prairie clover DAPU5 Dalea purpurea 0–29 – Forb, native 2FN Forb, native 0–29 – American vetch VIAM Vicia americana 0–29 – Shrub/Vine9 Shrubs 29–116 snowberry SYMPH Symphoricarpos 0–116 – prairie sagewort ARFR4 Artemisia frigida 0–58 – rose ROSA5 Rosa 0–58 – Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) 0–29 – Table 16. Community 4.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Grass/Grasslike1 Cool-Season Bunchgrasses 0–90 needle and thread HECOC8 Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata 0–90 – green needlegrass NAVI4 Nassella viridula 0–18 – 2 Mid Warm-Season Grasses 0–54 little bluestem SCSC Schizachyrium scoparium 0–54 – 3 Wheatgrass 0–90 western wheatgrass PASM Pascopyrum smithii 0–90 – 4 Short Warm-Season Grasses 36–360 blue grama BOGR2 Bouteloua gracilis 36–360 – sand dropseed SPCR Sporobolus cryptandrus 0–90 – 5 Other Native Grasses 0–72 Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 2GRAM Graminoid (grass or grass-like) 0–54 – Scribner's rosette grass DIOLS Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum 0–36 – fall rosette grass DIWI5 Dichanthelium wilcoxianum 0–18 – prairie Junegrass KOMA Koeleria macrantha 0–18 – 6 Grass-likes 90–630 threadleaf sedge CAFI Carex filifolia 90–630 – Grass-like (not a true grass) 2GL Grass-like (not a true grass) 0–54 – 7 Non-Native Grasses 180–810 Kentucky bluegrass POPR Poa pratensis 180–810 – quackgrass ELRE4 Elymus repens 0–180 – smooth brome BRIN2 Bromus inermis 0–126 – brome BROMU Bromus 0–126 – cheatgrass BRTE Bromus tectorum 0–90 – Forb8 Forbs 36–216 western yarrow ACMIO Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis 18–90 – Forb, introduced 2FI Forb, introduced 18–90 – Cuman ragweed AMPS Ambrosia psilostachya 18–72 – white sagebrush ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana 0–72 – curlycup gumweed GRSQ Grindelia squarrosa 18–72 – hairy false goldenaster HEVI4 Heterotheca villosa 0–72 – Forb, native 2FN Forb, native 18–54 – goldenrod SOLID Solidago 0–54 – white heath aster SYER Symphyotrichum ericoides 0–36 – scurfpea PSORA2 Psoralidium 0–36 – rush skeletonplant LYJU Lygodesmia juncea 0–18 – Shrub/Vine9 Shrubs 18–72 prairie sagewort ARFR4 Artemisia frigida 18–72 – rose ROSA5 Rosa 0–18 – snowberry SYMPH Symphoricarpos 0–18 – Shrub (>.5m) 2SHRUB Shrub (>.5m) 0–18 – Table 17. Community 4.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 18. Community 5.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 19. Community 5.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 20. Community 5.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 21. Community 6.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Animal community
Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations
The following table lists annual, suggested initial stocking rates with average growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ES description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. More accurate carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.
Bluestem/Needlegrass/Prairie Sandreed (1.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2,800
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.77
Needleandthread/Sandreed/Bluestem/Kentucky Bluegrass (3.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2,200
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.60
Smooth Brome/Kentucky Bluegrass (4.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2,900
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.79
Kentucky Bluegrass/Sedge (4.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 1,800
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.49
Annual/Pioneer, Non-native Perennial (4.3)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 1,200
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.33
*Based on 912 lbs./acre (air-dry weight) per Animal Unit Month (AUM), and on 25 percent harvest efficiency (refer to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) National Range and Pasture Handbook).
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements and added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.Hydrological functions
Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic groups A and B. Infiltration is typically high and runoff low on this site high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by blue grama, sedge, bluegrass, and/or smooth bromegrass will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).
Recreational uses
This site provides hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching, and other opportunities. The wide varieties of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wood products
No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.
Other products
Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.
Other information
Ecological Site Correlation Issues and Questions:
• Reference and alternative states within the state and transition model are may not be fully documented and may require additional field sampling for refinement.Supporting information
Inventory data references
There is no NRCS clipping data and other inventory currently available for this site. Information presented here has been derived using field observations from range-trained personnel. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; and Bruce Kunze, Soil Scientist, NRCS; Shane Deranleau, RMS, NRCS; and Mitch Faulkner, RMS, NRCS. Data Source Sample Period State County NONE
Other references
Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C. Carpenter, and W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of the Coterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. Washington, DC. 92 pps.
Gilbert, M. C., Whited, P. M., Clairain Jr, E. J., & Smith, R. D. (2006). A Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Prairie Potholes. Washington DC.
Pheasants Forever & edited by Wheeler, Ben (2017). Prescribed Fire in Nebraska: A Guide for Planning, Preparing and Conducting Your Prescribed Fire. 106pps.
Samson, F. B., & Knopf, F. L. (1996). Prairie Conservation Preserving North America's Most Endagered Ecosystem. Washington D.C.: Island Press.
Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. Accessed March 2018.
United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook, Revision 1. Grazing Lands Technology Institute. 214 pps.
United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296. 672pps.
USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, 2150 Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/nasis/)
USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 27 March 2018). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. 2013. Level III and Level IV Ecoregions of the Continental United States. Corvallis, OR, U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, map scale 1:3,000,000. Available at http://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- continental-united-states. (Accessed 1 March 2018).Contributors
Stan Boltz
Approval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 1/22/2024
Acknowledgments
Contact for Lead Authors: Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS), Redfield Soil Survey Office Redfield, SD; Lance Howe (Lance.Howe@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; and Steve Winter (Steven.Winter@usda.gov), Soil Scientist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD Additional Information Acknowledgment: Jason Hermann (Jason.Hermann@usda.gov), Area Rangeland Management Specialist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD. This Provisional Ecological Site concept has passed both Quality Control and Quality Assurance processes. Quality Assurance was approved by David Kraft, NRCS Regional Ecologist as of 11/12/2020. Non-discrimination Statement In accordance with Federal civil rights law and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) civil rights regulations and policies, the USDA, its Agencies, offices, and employees, and institutions participating in or administering USDA programs are prohibited from discriminating based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, gender identity (including gender expression), sexual orientation, disability, age, marital status, family/parental status, income derived from a public assistance program, political beliefs, or reprisal or retaliation for prior civil rights activity, in any program or activity conducted or funded by USDA (not all bases apply to all programs). Remedies and complaint filing deadlines vary by program or incident. Persons with disabilities who require alternative means of communication for program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, American Sign Language, etc.) should contact the responsible Agency or USDA's TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TTY) or contact USDA through the Federal Relay Service at (800) 877-8339. Additionally, program information may be made available in languages other than English. To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, available online and at any USDA office, or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632- 9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2) fax: (202) 690-7442; or (3) email: program.intake@usda.gov.
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Stan Boltz, Mitch Faulkner, Shane Deranleau Contact for lead author Stan Boltz, stanley.boltz@sd.usda.gov, 605-352-1236 Date 03/15/2011 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
Rills should not be present. -
Presence of water flow patterns:
Barely observable or not present. -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Essentially non-existent. -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground less than 5 percent and patches less than two inches in diameter. -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Active gullies should not be present. -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None present. -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Little to no plant litter movement. Plant litter remains in place and is not moved by erosional forces. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil aggregate stability normally a 5 to 6 rating. Typically high root content and organic matter in the soil surface. Soil surface is very resistant to erosion. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Soil surface structure is granular, and mollic (higher organic matter) colors of A-horizon down to about 4 to 7 inches. -
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Healthy, deep-rooted native grass and grass-like species enhance infiltration and reduce runoff. -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
No compaction layer should be present. -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Tall, warm-season grasses > mid and tall, cool-season bunchgrasses >Sub-dominant:
Mid, warm-season grasses > wheatgrasses = grass-like species = forbs >Other:
Short, warm-season grasses > shrubsAdditional:
Other native grasses occur in other functional groups in minor amounts. -
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little to no evidence of decadence or mortality. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
70-80 percent plant litter cover, roughly 0.25 to 0.5 inches in depth. Litter cover is in contact with the soil surface. -
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
2,800 pounds/acre (air-dry basis) -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Refer to State and local Noxious Weed List; also Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass. -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
Perennial grasses have vigorous rhizomes and/or tillers.
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