State 1
Reference State
The Reference State is a description of this ecological site just prior to Euro-American settlement but long after the arrival of Native Americans. The description of the Reference State was determined by NRCS Soil Survey Type Site Location information and familiarity with relict areas where they exist. At the time of European colonization, what would have been observed on these sites would have primarily depended on the time since the last wildfire occurred. If fire had not occurred for about 100 years, a stand of mixed conifers including Engelmann Spruce (Picea engelmannii), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and white fir (Abies concolor), and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) would have been the dominant species occupying the site (1.1). The understory would have been relatively sparse under mature trees due to tree competition, overstory shading, and duff accumulation. Wildfire or insect outbreaks on particular tree species would have replaced these stands with a rich diversity of herb-dominated vegetation. In the absence of any major disturbance, the vegetation would have progressed into more of a shrub-herb co-dominance, followed by the increasing presence of aspen (Populus tremuloides) first as seedlings and saplings, and later as mature aspen with mixed conifer seedlings. Ultimately the conifers would have outcompeted aspen, returning the climax vegetation. Wildfire would have been the primary disturbance factor prior to colonization, although periodic outbreaks of insects destroying particular tree species could reset the successional clock. Early successional stages were shorter in duration.
Community 1.1
Mature Engelmann spruce / subalpine fir/ white fir/ Douglas-fir/ sparse understory
This plant community would have been characterized by a stand of mature mixed conifers including Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, Douglas-fir, white fir, and lodgepole pine with a sparse understory of Geyer’s sedge (Carex geyeri), slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), and heartleaf arnica (Arnica cordifolia).
Community 1.2
Herb and shrub dominated
This plant community would have developed within the first 5 years following fire.
Geyer’s sedge, slender wheatgrass, and heartleaf arnica would have been the dominant species, along with many other short-lived herbaceous shade-intolerant species.
After about 5 years, shrubs would begin to establish in the site.
Between 5 and 60 years after fire, shrubs and herbs would co-dominate the site. The increasing shrub component would have included mountain snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus), creeping barberry (Mahonia repens), mallow ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus), and gooseberry currant (Ribes montigenum), among others.
Community 1.3
Immature aspen / mature aspen/ mixed conifer
This plant community would have been dominated by a stand of immature aspen, a seral species, while the conifer species would have begun to establish themselves under other nurse plants. A stand of immature aspen would have existed approximately 60 to 80 years following the last fire.
Aspen would have continued to mature while the various conifers would have become well established in the understory.
A stand of mature aspen intermixed with mixed conifers and various understory shrubs would have been encountered approximately 80 to 100 years post fire.
Pathway 1.1a
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Wildfire would have removed the trees, allowing shade-intolerant herbs to flourish briefly.
Pathway 1.2b
Community 1.2 to 1.3
About 60 years after fire, aspen would have become established in the site.
Pathway 1.3a
Community 1.3 to 1.1
After about 100 years following the last fire, the conifers would become mature, shading out aspen and the shade-intolerant shrub and herb species in the understory.
Pathway 1.3b
Community 1.3 to 1.2
Wildfire would have removed the trees, allowing shade-intolerant herbs to flourish briefly.
State 2
Secondary Forest / Introduced State
State 2 is similar to State 1 in form and function, with the exception of the presence of non-native plants and animals, possible extinctions of native species, a different climate, and a secondary stand of trees. State 2 is a description of the ecological site following Euro-American settlement. This state can be regarded as the current potential. With the least amount of disturbance or manipulation of the fire regime, a mature stand of subalpine fir, white fir, and Douglas fir with a sparse understory component is expected at this site (2.1). As with the Reference State, time since last wildfire remains the key factor in determining what vegetation will be encountered on these sites. Wildfire, particularly crown fires, or complete harvesting of the forest will replace these stands with a rich diversity of herb-dominated vegetation. In the absence of any major disturbance, the vegetation will progress into more of a shrub-herb co-dominance, followed by the increasing presence of aspen, first as seedlings and saplings, and later as mature aspen with immature conifers. Ultimately the conifers will outcompete aspen, returning to a semblance of climax vegetation. In some areas where wildfire has been prevented, the conifers may become over-mature and consequently are more susceptible to infestation by insects and pathogens. The resiliency of this State can be maintained by moderating human uses of the forest for timber and grazing.
Community 2.1
Mature Engelmann spruce / Sparse understory
This plant community is characterized by a stand of mature subalpine fir, white fir, and Douglas-fir. A sparse understory of Geyer’s sedge, slender wheatgrass, and heartleaf arnica may be present.
Community 2.2
Herb and shrub dominated
This plant community will develop within the first 5 years following the last fire or complete tree removal. Geyer’s sedge, slender wheatgrass, and heartleaf arnica will be the dominant understory species.
A small component of introduced species may be present. The combination of heavy season long livestock grazing would accelerate woody plant (shrub) establishment and diminish the herbaceous understory.
A plant community co-dominated by shrubs and herbs will develop approximately 5 to 60 years following fire or complete tree removal.
Community 2.3
Immature aspen / mature aspen / mixed conifer
Aspen will establish in the site 60 to 80 years after the last fire or complete tree removal.
The combination of heavy season long livestock grazing and fire exclusion would accelerate woody plant establishment and diminish the understory.
A stand of mature aspen with an intermixed with subalpine fir, white fir, and Douglas-fir will develop approximately 80 to 100 years following fire or complete tree removal.
The removal of mature aspen will leave a stand of immature aspen, possibly with a few Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, white fir, lodgepole pine, and Douglas-fir in the understory, accelerating the pathway towards the mature conifer plant community.
Community 2.4
Over-mature, blighted mixed conifers/ understory absent
This plant community is the result of fire exclusion for well over 100 years. The Engelmann spruce and Douglas fir is over-mature and weakened, making it susceptible to infestation by insects or other pathogens.
Pathway 2.1a
Community 2.1 to 2.2
A stand-replacing wildfire or intensive logging will set the vegetation back to an early seral herb-dominated phase. Logging opens up the forest canopy, allowing shade-intolerant understory herbs and shrubs to flourish for 20 to 30 years.
Pathway 2.1b
Community 2.1 to 2.3
The removal of only the mature Douglas fir and Engelmann spruce will leave only the less desirable true fir species in the overstory.
Pathway 2.1b
Community 2.1 to 2.4
With fire exclusion, or well over 100 years since last fire, the conifer stand will ultimately deteriorate (become over-mature) and become increasingly susceptible to wildfire and infestation by insects or other pathogens.
Pathway 2.2a
Community 2.2 to 2.3
About 60 years after fire, aspen will have become established in the site. The combination of heavy season long livestock grazing would accelerate woody plant establishment and diminish the herbaceous understory.
Pathway 2.3a
Community 2.3 to 2.1
After about 100 years following the last fire, the conifers will become mature, shading out aspen and the shade-intolerant shrub and herb species in the understory.
The combination of heavy season long livestock grazing and fire exclusion would accelerate woody plant establishment and diminish the understory.
Pathway 2.3b
Community 2.3 to 2.2
A stand-replacing wildfire or intensive logging will set the vegetation back to an early seral herb-dominated phase. Logging opens up the forest canopy allowing grasses, herbs, and shrubs to flourish for 20 to 30 years.
Pathway 2.4a
Community 2.4 to 2.2
A stand-replacing wildfire will set the vegetation back to an early seral herb-dominated phase.
Transition T1
State 1 to 2
The simultaneous introduction of exotic species, both plants and animals, and possible extinctions of native flora and fauna, along with climate change, has caused State 1 to transition to State 2. Europeans further altered this vegetation largely through logging, livestock grazing, trapping of beaver, and changing the fire regime. Continued impacts could prevent the recovery toward potential conifer dominance (State 2, various phases). The reversal of these changes (i.e. a return pathway) back to State 1 is not impractical.
