Land use 1
Rangeland

This land use, in MLRA 44B, is primarily native rangeland used for grazing of domestic livestock or for wildlife habitat.

State 1.1
Reference

The Reference State of this ecological site consists of two potential plant communities: the Mid-Statured Bunchgrass Community and Mixed Bunchgrass Community. These are described below but are generally characterized by a mid-statured, cool-season grass and shrub production. Community 1.1 is dominated by rough fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass. This community is considered the reference, while Community 1.2 is primarily bluebunch and needle and thread with rough fescue and Wyoming big sagebrush.

State 1.2
Altered

This state is characterized by having less than 20 percent rough fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass by dry weight. It is represented by 2 communities that differ in the percent composition of needle and thread, production, and soil degradation. Production in this state can be similar to that in the Reference State. Some native plants tend to increase under prolonged drought and/or heavy grazing practices. A few of these species may include Idaho fescue, needle and thread, Sandberg bluegrass, western yarrow (Achillea millefolium), scarlet globemallow, hairy false goldenaster, and prairie sagewort.

Characteristics and indicators. Less than 20 percent bluebunch wheatgrass & rough fescue Increase in short stature grasses Increase by 10 percent in bare ground

Resilience management. Conservative grazing management, Integrated Pest Management, time

State 1.3
Degraded

Mid-stature bunchgrasses are nonexistent in the Degraded State. Sandberg bluegrass and prairie Junegrass are dominant grasses. Increaser shrubs nearly replace larger shrub species. The remaining large shrub species are heavily hedged. This is likely a terminal state (e.g., restoration will likely be impossible or unsuccessful and require major energy inputs). Lesser spikemoss (Selaginella densa) will increase due to the increased bare soil.

Characteristics and indicators. increase by 10-20 percent bare ground annual grasses common complete removal of bluebunch wheatgrass and replaced with sandberg bluegrass, western wheatgrass, and blue grama sagebrush nearly gone and replaced with rabbitbrush and broom snakeweed

Resilience management. Prescribed grazing, Range seeding, Brush Management, Integrated Pest Management

State 1.4
Invaded

The Invaded State is identified as being in the exponential growth phase of invader abundance where control is a priority. Dominance (or relative dominance) of noxious or invasive species reduces species diversity, forage production, wildlife habitat, and site protection. A level of 20 percent invasive species composition by dry weight indicates that a substantial energy input will be required to create a shift to the grassland state (herbicide, mechanical treatment), even with a return to proper grazing management or favorable growing conditions. Prescribed grazing can be used to manage invasive species. In some instances, carefully targeted grazing (sometimes in combination with other treatments) can reduce or maintain the species composition of invasive species.

Characteristics and indicators. High amounts of invading species (both native and introduced).

Resilience management. Integrated Pest Management Prescribed Grazing Brush Management Prescribed Fire Range Seeding

State 1.5
Conifer Encroached

Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) encroachment is limited on this ecological site and is generally focused in areas where the mountains of MLRA 44B transition quickly to MLRA 43B. Under the Reference State, no conifers should exist on this site. Conifer Encroached State consists of up to four (4) potential phases. The Early Phase, Mid Phase, Late Phase, and Closed Phase are defined by the amount of encroachment and age class of the stand. This state typically occurs in response to a combination of long-term fire suppression, grazing history, and increased atmospheric carbon dioxide. The trigger for transition is a coniferous expansion of more than one (1) stem per hectare.

Transition T1A
State 1.1 to 1.2

The Reference State transitions to the Altered State if bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue, by dry weight, decrease to below 20 percent or if bare ground cover increases by 10 percent. The driver for this transition is the loss of taller bunchgrasses, which creates open areas in the plant canopy with bare soil. Soil erosion reduces soil fertility, which drives transitions to the Altered State. There are several other key factors signaling the approach of transition T1A: increases in soil physical crusting, decreases in cover of cryptogamic crusts, decreases in soil surface aggregate stability, and/or evidence of erosion including water flow patterns, development of plant pedestals, and litter movement. The trigger for this transition is improper grazing management and/or long-term drought, leading to a decrease in bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue composition to less than 20 percent and a reduction in total plant canopy cover.

Transition T1C
State 1.1 to 1.3

The Reference State transitions to the Degraded State when bluebunch wheatgrass and rough fescue are removed from the plant community and needle and thread is subdominant to short-statured bunchgrasses such as Sandberg bluegrass. The trigger for this transition is the loss of taller bunchgrasses, which creates open spaces with bare soil. Soil erosion reduces soil fertility, causing transitions to the Degraded State. There are several other key factors signaling the approach of transition T1C: increases in soil physical crusting, decreases in cover of cryptogamic crusts, decreases in soil surface aggregate stability, and/or evidence of erosion including water flow patterns, development of plant pedestals, and litter movement. The driver for this transition is improper grazing management, intense or repeated fires, and/or heavy human disturbance. Rapid transition is generally realized where livestock are confined to small pastures for long periods of time.

Transition T1B
State 1.1 to 1.4

Healthy plant communities are most resistant to invasion. However, regardless of grazing management, without some form of active weed management (chemical, mechanical, or biological control) and without prevention, the Reference State can transition to the Invaded State in the presence of aggressive invasive species such as spotted knapweed, leafy spurge, and cheatgrass. The Central Rocky Mountain Valleys tend to resist invasion by cheatgrass; however, repeated heavy grazing or intense human activities can open the interspaces of the bunchgrass community and allow for encroachment. Long-term stress conditions for native species (e.g., overgrazing, drought, and fire) accelerate this transition. If populations of invasive species reach critical levels, the site transitions to the Invaded State. The trigger for this transition is the presence of aggressive invasive species. The species composition by dry weight of invasive species approaches 10 percent.

Transition T1E
State 1.1 to 1.5

The transition from the Reference State to the Conifer Encroached State is driven primarily by long-term fire suppression, but heavy grazing may contribute to increased bare ground for seeding sites. Encroachment occurs most quickly within 200 feet of the seed source. The trigger for transition is a conifer stem count greater than one (1) per hectare.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 1.2 to 1.1

The Altered State has lost soil or vegetation attributes to the point that recovery to the Reference State will require reclamation efforts such as soil rebuilding, intensive mechanical and cultural treatments, and/or revegetation. Examples of mechanical treatment may be brush control, while cultural treatments may include prescribed grazing, targeted brush browsing, or prescribed burning. Low-intensity prescribed fires were used to reduce competitive increaser plants like needle and thread and Sandberg bluegrass. A low-intensity fire will also reduce Wyoming big sagebrush densities. Fire should be carefully planned or avoided in areas prone to annual grass infestation. The drivers for this restoration pathway are reclamation efforts along with proper grazing management.

Transition T2A
State 1.2 to 1.3

As improper grazing management continues, the vigor of bunch grasses will decrease and the shorter grasses and shrubs will increase, contributing to the Degraded State. Prolonged drought will provide a competitive advantage to shrubs, allowing them to become co-dominant with grasses. Shrub canopy will increase. Key transition factors include: an increase in native shrub canopy cover; a reduction in bunchgrass production; a decrease in total plant canopy cover and production; increases in mean bare patch size; increases in soil crusting; decreases in the cover of cryptobiotic crusts; decreases in soil aggregate stability; and/or evidence of erosion, including water flow patterns and litter movement.

Transition T2B
State 1.2 to 1.4

Invasive species can occupy the Altered State and drive it to the Invaded State. The Altered State is at risk if invasive seeds and/or other viable material are present. The driver for this transition is more than 10 percent of the dry weight of invasive species. The trigger is the presence of seeds and/or other viable material from invasive species.

Transition T2D
State 1.2 to 1.5

The transition from the Altered State to the Conifer Encroached State is driven primarily by long-term fire suppression, but long-term heavy grazing may contribute to increased bare ground for seeding sites. Encroachment occurs most quickly within 200 feet of the seed source. The trigger for transition is a conifer stem count higher than one (1) stem per hectare.

Restoration pathway R3B
State 1.3 to 1.1

The Degraded State has lost soil or vegetation attributes to the point that recovery to the Reference State will require reclamation efforts, such as soil rebuilding, intensive mechanical treatments, and/or revegetation. Studies suggest that a mulch with a high carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, such as wood chips or bark, in low moisture scenarios can be beneficial for slow mobilization of plant available nitrogen (Whitford et al. 1989). Biochar may also be added to the system to improve Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) which should improve Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), microbial activity, and hydrologic conductivity (Stavi 2012). The drivers for the restoration pathway are the removal of increaser species, restoration of native bunchgrass species, persistent management of invasives and shrubs, and proper grazing management. Without continued control, invasive and shrub species are likely to return (probably rapidly) due to the presence of seeds and/or other viable material in the soil and management-related increases in soil disturbance.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 1.3 to 1.2

Since the bunchgrass plant community has been significantly reduced, restoration to the Altered State is unlikely unless a seed source is available. If there is enough grass left on the site, chemical and/or biological control, combined with proper grazing management, can reduce the amount of shrubs and invasive species and restore the site to the Needle and Thread/Shortgrass Community. Low-intensity fire can be utilized to reduce Wyoming big sagebrush competition and allow the reestablishment of grass species. Caution must be used when considering fire as a management tool on sites with fire-tolerant shrubs such as rubber rabbitbrush, as these shrubs will sprout after a burn. Broom snakeweed and fringed sagewort may or may not re-sprout depending on conditions (USDA Forest Service, 2011).

Transition T3A
State 1.3 to 1.4

Invasive species can occupy the Degraded State and drive it to the Invaded State. The Degraded State is at risk of this transition occurring if invasive seeds or viable material are present. The driver for this transition is the presence of critical population levels of invasive species. The trigger is the presence of seeds or viable material from invasive species. This state has sufficient bare ground that the transition could occur simply due to the presence or introduction of invasive seeds or viable material. This is particularly true of aggressive invasive species such as spotted knapweed and cheatgrass. This transition could be assisted by overgrazing (failure to adjust stocking rate to declining forage production), a long-term lack of fire, or an extensive drought.

Transition T3C
State 1.3 to 1.5

The transition from the Degraded State to the Conifer Encroached State is driven primarily by long-term heavy grazing and increased bare ground for seeding sites. Encroachment occurs most quickly within 200 feet of the seed source. The trigger for transition is a conifer stem count higher than one (1) per hectare.

Restoration pathway R4C
State 1.4 to 1.1

Restoration of the Invaded State to the Reference State requires substantial energy input. The drivers for the restoration pathway are the removal of invasive species, restoration of native bunchgrass species, persistent management of invasive species, and proper grazing management. Without continued control, invasive species are likely to return (probably rapidly) due to the presence of seeds and/or other viable material in the soil and management-related practices that increase soil disturbance. If invaded by conifer encroachment, treatment depends on the condition of the rangeland. Sites that have transitioned from the Degraded State to the Invaded State may be severely lacking in soil and vegetative properties that will allow for restoration to the Reference State. Hydrologic function damage may be irreversible, especially with accelerated gully erosion.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 1.4 to 1.2

If invasive species are removed before remnant populations of bunchgrass are drastically reduced, the Invaded State can revert to the Altered State. The driver for the reclamation pathway is weed management without reseeding. Continued Integrated Pest Management (IPM) will be required as many of the invasive species that can occupy the Invaded State have extended dormant seed life. The trigger is invasive species control.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 1.4 to 1.3

If invasive species are removed, the site could return to the Degraded State. Without sufficient remnant populations of preferred plants, the Invaded State is not likely to return to any of the other states. The driver for the reclamation pathway is weed management without reseeding. The trigger is invasive species control. The invading species cause a significant increased soil loss due to lack of ground cover (Lacey et al. 1989).

Restoration pathway R5A
State 1.5 to 1.1

Restoration efforts may simply focus on the removal of coniferous trees and shrubs to restore the Conifer Encroached State to the Reference State, depending on the level of conifer canopy cover and its impact on rangeland health. If following and utilizing the phases established by Miller et al., management and restoration methods will vary. A majority of the conifer encroachment in MLRA 44B will fall into the early two phases of Miller's phases. When conifers are removed through brush management and/or prescribed fire, Phase I may reveal none-to-slight to moderate deviations from rangeland health. If mechanical removal of conifers is utilized, no grazing management is needed, assuming relatively conservative management had been used prior to treatment. If prescribed fire is utilized, short-term grazing deferment and/or rest are suggested. In a short period of time, removing a Phase I encroachment will return the site to its original state. Proactive pest management is encouraged. Phase II encroachment may require a more intensive mechanical removal of trees and shrubs, with prescribed fire not being a feasible method of control as this community may be at risk of catastrophic fire due to canopy density. Phase II displays a moderate departure from Reference, suggesting an overall instability of the site such as reduced herbaceous production, reduced functional/structural groups (e.g., reduced mid-statured bunchgrasses), increased rill frequency and length, and possibly more bare ground. Increased post-treatment grazing management may be necessary. Grazing management may be as simple as short-term growing season deferment; however, long-term rest may be necessary in the latter stages of Phase II encroachment. The latter stages of Phase II encroachment will likely require some short-term erosion mitigation, such as straw waddles, as well as range planting and/or critical area planting to re-establish any loss of native herbaceous plants, particularly mid-statured cool-season bunchgrasses. Phase III encroachment canopy cover resembles forested sites with larger trees and shrubs. Prior to any prescribed burning, forest management-style tree removal (removal of woody debris and logs from the site) will be required to prevent the fire from burning too hot. The result of a prescribed fire on this site is typically unknown as seed sources of native herbaceous plants are usually limited to small patches. Since the Loamy ecological site for 44B LRU 01 Subset C is a dry site, herbaceous plants will likely have been depleted under a Phase III encroachment. This means there is an opportunity for large areas of bare ground, increased rills, and, in some cases, gully erosion. Post-treatment will require range planting and/or critical area seeding, erosion control, pest management, and possibly soil carbon amendments (biochar). Grazing management (primarily rest) will be required to ensure the establishment of any new seedlings.

Restoration pathway R5B
State 1.5 to 1.2

The Conifer Encroached State's Phases I and II will generally resemble the Altered State on this site. If following and utilizing the phases established by Miller et al., management and restoration methods will vary. A majority of the conifer encroachment in MLRA 44B will fall into the early two phases of Miller's phases. When conifers are removed through brush management and/or prescribed fire, Phase I may show none-to-slight to moderate deviations from rangeland health. If mechanical removal of conifers is utilized, no grazing management is needed, assuming relatively conservative management had been used prior to treatment. If prescribed fire is utilized, short-term grazing deferment and/or rest are suggested. In a short period of time, removing a Phase I encroachment will return the site to its original state. Proactive pest management is encouraged. Phase II encroachment may require a more intensive mechanical removal of trees and shrubs, with prescribed fire not being a feasible method of control as this community may be at risk of catastrophic fire due to canopy density. Phase II displays a moderate departure from Reference, suggesting an overall instability of the site such as reduced herbaceous production, reduced functional and structural groups (e.g., reduced mid-statured bunchgrasses), increased rill frequency and length, and possibly more bare ground. Increased post-treatment grazing management may be necessary. Grazing management may be as simple as short-term growing season deferment; however, long-term rest may be necessary in the latter stages of Phase II encroachment. The latter stages of Phase II encroachment will likely require some short-term erosion mitigation such as straw waddles as well as range planting and/or critical area planting to re-establish any loss of native herbaceous plants, particularly mid-statured cool-season bunchgrasses. Phase III encroachment canopy cover resembles forested sites with larger trees and shrubs. Prior to any prescribed burning, forest management-style tree removal (removal of woody debris and logs from the site) will be required to prevent the fire from burning too hot. The result of a prescribed fire on this site is typically unknown as seed sources of native herbaceous plants are usually limited to small patches. Since the Loamy ecological site for 44B LRU 01 Subset C is a dry site, herbaceous plants will likely have been depleted under a Phase III encroachment. This means there is an opportunity for large areas of bare ground, increased rills, and, in some cases, gully erosion. Post-treatment will require range planting and/or critical area seeding, erosion control, pest management, and possibly soil carbon amendments (biochar). Grazing management (primarily rest) will be required to ensure the establishment of any new seedlings.

Restoration pathway R5C
State 1.5 to 1.3

The Conifer Encroached State's Phases II and III may resemble the Degraded State on this site. If following and utilizing the phases established by Miller et al., management and restoration methods will vary. An overwhelming majority of the conifer encroachment in MLRA 44B will fall into the early two phases of Miller's phases. This restoration pathway is extremely rare because managing a degraded state is typically not cost-effective for land managers. When conifers are removed through brush management and/or prescribed fire, Phase I may show none-to-slight to moderate deviations from rangeland health. If mechanical removal of conifers is utilized, no grazing management is needed, assuming relatively conservative management had been used prior to treatment. If prescribed fire is utilized, short-term grazing deferment and/or rest are suggested. Given a short time removal of a Phase I encroachment will recover to Reference. Proactive pest management is encouraged. Phase II Encroachment may require a more intensive mechanical removal of trees and shrubs, with prescribed fire not being a feasible method of control as this community may be at risk of catastrophic fire due to canopy density. Phase II displays a moderate departure from Reference, suggesting an overall instability of the site such as reduced herbaceous production, reduced functional and structural groups (e.g., reduced mid-statured bunchgrasses), increased rill frequency and length, and possibly more bare ground. Increased post-treatment grazing management may be necessary. Grazing management may be as simple as short-term growing season deferment; however, long-term rest may be necessary in the latter stages of Phase II encroachment. The latter stages of Phase II encroachment will likely require some short-term erosion mitigation, such as straw waddles, as well as range planting and/or critical area planting to re-establish any loss of native herbaceous plants, particularly mid-statured cool-season bunchgrasses. Phase III Encroachment canopy cover resembles forested sites with larger trees and shrubs. Forest management style tree removal (woody debris and logs removed from the site) will be necessary prior to any prescribed burning as to prevent the fire from burning too hot. The results of a prescribed fire on this site are typically unknown as seed sources of native herbaceous plants are usually limited to small patches. Since the Loamy ecological site for 44B LRU 01 Subset C is a dry site, herbaceous plants will likely have been depleted under a Phase III encroachment. This means there is an opportunity for large areas of bare ground, increased rills and, in some cases, gully erosion. Post-treatment will require range planting and/or critical area seeding, erosion control, pest management, and possibly soil carbon amendments (biochar). Grazing management (primarily rest) will be required to ensure the establishment of any new seedlings.

State 2
Cultivated

Native rangeland is converted to a Cultivated system dominated on introduced species for forage or grain production. This system often receives multiple inputs including fertilizer, herbicides, and irrigation.

Characteristics and indicators. Site is sodbusted and converted to forage or grain production

State 2.1
Cultivated Forage

The Cultivated Forage Community is the most common within the Cultivated State. It consists of primarily of long term grass and/or forb crop planted for grazing or hay. If irrigation water is available, species will be highly variable based on the goals and objectives of the land manager however will likely include alfalfa. Production of an irrigated site in this community is typically high

If irrigation is not available, the dry climate limits species options and will likely include Crested wheatgrass or Russian wildrye. Alfalfa is rarely a lone species under dryland conditions.

State 2.2
Abandoned Cultivated Field

The Abandoned Cultivated Field Community is a relatively rare occurrence due to the productive nature of this ecological site. However, as traditional land use transitions from agriculture to recreational, abandonment of cultivation may occur.

If the site was in the Actively Cultivated State at the time of abandonment, the resulting plant community will likely transition into an herbaceous annual weed community. Over time, the weeds will typically yield to a naturalized community of perennial grasses and forbs sourced from the surrounding plant community. Needleandthread, blue grama, sandberg bluegrass, rabbitbrush, and fringed sagewort are the common native species that can be considered native colonizing species. Active Cultivated States are rarely abandoned without some attempt of being planted to a Cultivated Forage Community first.

If the site was managed as a Cultivated Forage Community at the time of abandonment, the plant community tends to transition in to a community that resembles a Degraded State over time. With enough time, native colonizing species will slowly fill the interspaces between the forage crops.

Once the Abandoned Cultivated Field Community has reached maturity, it will have very similar ecological process as the Degraded State (3.1)

State 2.3
Active Cultivated

Active Cultivated Community is common on this ecological site as the soil pH, water holding capacity and inherent soil organic matter tend to be favorable to annual cropping. If irrigation is available this community is capable of producing a wide variety of crops including corn silage, seed potatoes, pumpkins, sunflower, and other specialty crops. The relatively short growing season tends to be the restriction if irrigated.

Long term annual cropping can destroy soil aggregation, create soil erosion (both wind and water), deplete organic matter, and alter pH so a conservative crop management system will need to be applied to prevent degradation of the site.

Transition T1A
State 2.1 to 2.2

Cultivated Forage Community is abandoned. This pathway rarely occurs in present time however has occurred frequently in the past which is how Community 2.2 may be observed. In this process, a reason for abandonment occurs and the field sits idle from management. Over time the surrounding native vegetation fills the interspaces between plants.

Transition T1B
State 2.1 to 2.3

Cultivated Forage Community is converted from permanent cover to an annually cropped system. Change takes place when cultivation or plowing occurs. This community pathway is a frequent occurrence on this ecological site particularly when the Cultivated Forage Community’s production begins to drop. This is often on a 10-20 year cycle in this MLRA.

Transition T2A
State 2.2 to 2.1

Abandoned Cultivated Field is planted to a forage or hay crop of the manager’s preference. Often this pathway will require tillage or herbicide to terminate the existing plant community and seeding to initiate change.

Transition T2B
State 2.2 to 2.3

An abandoned cultivated field is converted to an annually cropped system. Change takes place when cultivation or plowing occurs. This community pathway is often necessary to convert a lower producing or undesirable community into an annually cropped system.

Transition T3A
State 2.3 to 2.1

Active Cultivation Community is planted to a forage or hay crop of the manager’s preference. This is a common pathway in this MLRA.

Transition T3B
State 2.3 to 2.2

Active Community is abandoned. This pathway rarely occurs in present time however has occurred frequently in the past which is how Community 2.2 may be observed. In this process, a reason for abandonment occurs and the field sits idle from management. Over time the surrounding native vegetation fills the interspaces between weedy, herbaceous plants

Conversion Conversion
Land use 1 to 2

Mechanical tillage is utilized to change the plant community from native rangeland to cropland. The conversion is often maintained in annual small grain cropland or forage crops.