State 1
Native Perennial Grasses/Mixed Shrubs

The Saline Lowland ecological site is composed of a mixture of salt tolerant grasses, as well as a minor component of shrubs. Potential vegetation is about 75 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs and 15 percent woody plants. The communities that represent the reference communities are native driven. Disturbances and the natural hydrologic processes involved in these generally riparian communities will affect which community is occurring along a landscape gradient. In communities not tied to a riparian system, the same shift in species will occur with the shift in the water table over time.

Characteristics and indicators. Alkali sacaton, Nuttall's alkaligrass, basin wildrye and inland saltgrass are dominant within the site. Common shrubs in this community are greasewood, wild rose, shrubby cinquefoil, and occasionally willows. As a community is in drier stages or degrades, foxtail barley, little barley and western wheatgrass are common.

Resilience management. This state is stable and well adapted to the Central Rocky Mountains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought resistance. This is a sustainable plant community (site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity).

Community 1.1
Alkali Sacaton/Basin Wildrye/Greasewood

The interpretive plant community for this site is the Reference Community Phase. This state evolved with grazing by large herbivores, periodic fires, supplemental moisture, and saline and/or alkali soils. Potential vegetation is 75 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs and 15 percent woody plants. Saline tolerant grasses dominate the state. The major grasses include alkali sacaton, basin and Canada wildrye, and rhizomatous wheatgrasses. Dominant woody plants are typically greasewood and rubber rabbitbrush. A variety of forbs also occurs in this state and plant diversity is high (see Plant Composition Table).

The total annual production (air-dry weight) of this state is about 2200 pounds per acre, but it can range from about 1600 pounds per acre in unfavorable years to about 2600 pounds per acre in above average years.

Resilience management. This state is stable and well adapted to the Central Rocky Mountains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought resistance. This is a sustainable plant community (site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity).

Community 1.2
Alkali Sacaton/Inland Saltgrass/Greasewood

Historically, this plant community evolved under moderate grazing by domestic livestock and low fire frequency. Currently, this site is normally found under a moderate, season-long grazing regime and in the absence of fire or brush control. Prolonged drought can also play an important role and will exacerbate these conditions. Saline and flood tolerant perennial plants make up the dominant species in this plant community.

The dominant grasses include alkali sacaton, inland saltgrass, rhizomatous wheatgrasses, bottlebrush squirreltail, and Sandberg bluegrass. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include wild onion, pursh seepweed, smooth goldaster, and povertyweed. Greasewood and rubber rabbitbrush comprises the majority of the woody species and make up less than 25 percent of the annual production.

When compared to Community 1.1, basin and Canada wildrye have decreased. Annual weedy plants have invaded, but occur in small patches. Inland saltgrass, greasewood, and rubber rabbitbrush have increased.

The total annual production (air-dry weight) of this state is about 1700 pounds per acre, but it can range from about 1300 pounds per acre in unfavorable years to about 2100 pounds per acre in above average years.

Resilience management. This state is stable and protected from excessive erosion. The herbaceous component is mostly intact and plant vigor and replacement capabilities are sufficient. Only minimal occurrences of water flow patterns and litter movement is evident. Incidence of pedestalling is minimal. Soils are mostly stable and the surface shows minimum soil loss. The watershed is functioning and the biotic community is intact.

Community 1.3
Mixed Shrub/Inland Saltgrass Sod

Greasewood and rubber rabbitbrush are the primary overstory species in this plant community. Shrubs comprise less than 35 percent of the annual production. Wild rose and shrubby cinquefoil are still common shrubs that will establish as well as fringed sagewort and white sagebrush.

The dominant grass is inland saltgrass. The stoloniferous habit of inland saltgrass creates a sod or mat cover. Within open spaces in this community, species such as Sandberg bluegrass and western wheatgrass hold a place in this community. Plant diversity is moderate to poor.

The total annual production (air-dry weight) of this state is about 1000 pounds per acre, but it can range from about 700 pounds per acre in unfavorable years to about 1300 pounds per acre in above average years.

Resilience management. This sod bound plant community is restricts water infiltration. While this sod protects and stabilizes the site itself, increased offsite runoff elevating the risk of erosion on bare ground and can cause rills and gullying. Water flow patterns are obvious in the bare ground areas and shrubs and sod patches are pedestalled. Rill channels are noticeable in the interspaces and gullies may be establishing where rills have concentrated. The watershed may or may not be functioning, as runoff is excessive and erosional processes are accelerated.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Moderate, continuous season-long grazing will convert this plant community to the Alkali Sacaton/Inland Saltgrass/Greasewood Plant Community. Prolonged drought will exacerbate this transition. Continuous grazing pressure weakens the key species targeted by grazing animals, which include Canda wildrye and Nuttall's alkaligrass, while encouraging inland saltgrass. Timing and intensity of grazing will have an effect on the basin wildrye on this community. Late season grazing allows wildrye to become coarse and undesirable by most grazers. Spring and early summer will quickly remove this plant while it is young and susceptible to grazing.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Significant impacts to the herbaceous cover must occur for this transition to take place. A parking area with high volume of traffic, a construction site, or similar period of events are the most common drivers. However, a series of flood events or a catastropic flood event that leaves a significant volume of sediment deposition or scouring. In these instances, inland saltgrass is able to respond quickly and spread to hold the soil while other species struggle to emerge from the depositional layer.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing or possibly long-term prescribed grazing will result in a plant community very similar to the Reference Community phase. Greasewood will persist without some form of brush control. Fire, depending on the intensity, will cause greasewood to resprout quickly, so is not a desired means of controlling greasewood. Significant root impact is needed to kill back greasewood from a community or selective chemical control.

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Frequent and Severe grazing or high traffic areas will convert this plant community to the Inland Saltgrass Sod/Greasewood Community Phase. Fire or mowing of the area may increase the greasewood cover, and will encourage inland saltgrass and other tillering species. Rubber rabbitbrush will respond to fire as well and will increase with greaewood following fire. The compaction and impact of recreational vehicles, trailing of animals or human activity aid in this transition.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Prescribed grazing or possibly long-term prescribed grazing will result in a plant community very similar to the Reference Community Phase. Hoof action will help to break up the root structure of Inland saltgrass, while rest after grazing will allow native key species to establish. Timing of grazing is important and will be based on the other species that are in or near a specific community, soil conditions and access.

State 2
Dense Shrub/Bare Gound

With continued disturbance and stress on the native key herbaceous cover, the understory begins to decrease or fade into the bases of the woody vegetation leaving an increase in bare ground. Greasewood and rubber rabbitbrush are prone to increase, especially in the case of fire or soil impacts (damage to the plant base will encourage sprouting). Fringed sagewort, wild rose, and shrubby cinquefoil will maintain cover, or may increase as well, depending on the type of disturbance driving the change.

Characteristics and indicators. The dominance of shrubs or woody cover and minimal key herbaceous cover is the main characteristic of this community. There is an increase in annual forbs like mustards, pepperweed, and woolly plantain. Six-weeks fescue and annual bluegrass are common in the understory.

Resilience management. The salt-laden soils limit the recovery capabilities of this community creating a resistant community to improving. The community is at-risk of transitioning to a more degraded state and to erosion.

Community 2.1
Dense Shrub/Bare Ground

This plant community evolved under frequent and severe grazing with the absence of fire and an interruption in overflow or an extended period of drought. Greasewood and rubber rabbitbrush are the dominant species of this plant community. Tall and mid-stature grasses have been eliminated or are minimized to the basal protection of the woody cover. The interspaces between shrubs have expanded leaving the amount of bare ground more prevalent and more soil surface exposed to erosive elements.

The annual grasses and forbs, such as six-weeks fescue, annual bluegrass, foxtail barley, woolly plantain, mustards and pepperweeds make up the dominant understory. Total annual production is mostly from shrubs and annuals. Shrubs make up greater than 35 percent of the total annual production. When compared with the Mixed Shrub/Inland Saltgrass Sod Community phase, the annual production is similar as the shrub production compensates for the decline in the herbaceous production.

Further degradation of this community will lead to headcutting and loss of hydrologic connectivity. The loss of hydrology will lead to the transition to the Saline Lowland Drained ecological Site. During this transition, upland species will begin to become common within the community.

The total annual production (air-dry weight) of this state is not provided due to the lack of sufficient data.

Resilience management. This plant community is resistant to change as the stand becomes more decadent. These areas may actually be more resistant to fire as less fine fuels are available and the bare ground between the shrubs is increased. Continued frequent and severe grazing or the removal of grazing does not seem to affect the plant composition or structure of the plant community. Annual grasses, weedy species and bare ground compromise the biotic integrity. Plant diversity is poor and the potential for native grasses to reproduce is absent. The shift in the vegetative structure and function is extreme and the biotic integrity is lost. The soil of this state is not well protected as erosion has accelerated because of increased bare ground. Water flow patterns and pedestalling are obvious. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is increased. Rill channels may be noticeable in the interspaces and gullies may be establishing where rills have concentrated.

State 3
Invaded

Increased activity on the landscapes provides more opportunity for disturbances as well as an increase of non-native species seed source. Disturbances to the soil surface and exiting canopy cover provides opportunity for non-native species to establish.

The most prevalent invader on saline sites is smooth brome, redtop bentgrass, and occasionally Kentucky bluegrass on Saline Lowland ecological sites. There are instances where the non-native or tame species and invasive communities cross on the landscape, leaving the site at-risk of further transformation. The occurrence of these communities can be a process of time or of disturbance.

Historic studies have documented the presence of non-native species such as Kentucky bluegrass and dandelions prior to the early 1950's. Another concern is the threat of large scale weed invasions. Currently, most of the mountain has retained only small or isolated patches of invasive weeds. Areas of leafy spurge, toadflax (yellow or dalmation) and thistles have been identified. Although early detection/rapid response techniques are applied for land management, limited resources make it difficult to track all current and new infestation sites. Overall, the weed infestation level is not seen as a critical concern, but the threat is growing and being monitored closely.

Characteristics and indicators. Non-native or tame species and invasive species are less of a concern on the salt-laden soils. There are, however, species that are salt-tolerant that will establish on the Saline Lowland ecological site, reducing or pushing native species out. The threshold that is crossed to indicate an invaded site is 5 percent composition by cover or by weight. The dominant non-native/invader species are Kentucky bluegrass, redtop bentgrass, thistles, toadflax (Dalmatian, yellow), and swanson's pea. As new species are found, this list will be adapted to include these species.

Resilience management. Non-native tame invaders as well as invasive species are able to adapt and tolerate a wide range of conditions, creating a resilient community once established.Their aggressive nature and ability to out compete native species for resources make the community resistant to positive change.

Community 3.1
Non-Native (Tame)

Non-Native (Tame) Community Phase has maintained a representative sample of the perennial grasses and forbs that are typical of the site with a mixed shrub community.
Non-native or tame species have established in the community and are a significant component (five percent or greater by foliar cover or weight), and are prominent (referring to a more wide scale composition, not one isolated patch in an isolated portion of the landscape).

Production of the desired perennial species is generally reduced but the total production is maintained or elevated due to the production potential of the non-native species. The species most common are Kentucky bluegrass, creeping meadow foxtail, redtop bent and common dandelion. However, smooth brome, meadow brome and timothy are possible components in areas with lower alkalinity.

Native species that are less desirable that are common to this community are foxtail barley, little barley, American licorice, and povertyweeds.

Resilience management. This plant community is resistant to change. These areas may be more prone to fire as fine fuels are more available. Plant diversity is moderate to poor. The plant vigor is diminished and replacement capabilities are limited due to the reduced number of native hydrophitic grasses. Plant litter is noticeably more when compared to reference communities due to the potential biomass produced by the non-native species (species dependent). Soil erosion is variable depending on the species of invasion and the litter accumulation thus associated, this variability also applies to water flow patterns and pedestalling. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is increased due to loss of perennial vegetation and root density.

Community 3.2
Invasive Invaded

The Invasive Invaded Community Phase has maintained a fractured sample of the perennial grasses and forbs that are typical of the Saline Lowland ecological site, however there is a significant establishment of invasive species. This plant community evolved under frequent and severe grazing. The shrub component has been impacted and possibly removed by heavy browsing or human means. Weedy annuals and non-native species are the most dominant plants.

Invasive species, most commonly canada thistle, cockle bur, swainson's pea, and perennial pepperweed, hold a significant (5 percent or greater) composition on the landscape, and are prominent (referring to a more wide scale composition, not isolated patches on the landscape). Greasewood may be more abundant than other shrubs, as it is a strong resprouter and may quickly re-establish the site after a disturbance. Russian olive may be present, but is not as common as on lower elevations.

With the decrease or loss of most desirable grasses, foxtail barley, inland saltgrass, and smooth brome will persist on the site. Creeping meadow foxtail, Kentucky bluegrass, dandelion and other introduced species will increase if present on the site. Other noxious weeds such as sow thistle may invade the site if a seed source is available. Production of the desired perennial species is generally reduced but the total production is maintained or elevated due to the production potential of the invasive species.

Resilience management. This plant community is resistant to continued herbivory. Annuals and invader species are effectively competing against the establishment of perennial cool-season grasses. Plant diversity is greatly altered and the herbaceous component is not intact. Recruitment of the major perennial grasses is not occurring and the replacement potential is low. The biotic integrity is missing. The state is unstable and is not protected from excessive erosion. Rill channels and gullies may be present on site and adjacent areas are impacted by excessive runoff. Water flow patterns and pedestalling are obvious. The watershed is not functioning.

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

Non-Native (Tame)

Invasive Invaded

Seed sources are abundant for both non-native and for invasive invader species. Drought stress, ground/soil disturbance including impacts by grazing large herbivores or recreation create a niche for undesirable weeds to establish, even in the aggressive cover of tame invaders. Overland flow or irrigation practices can also serve as a seed source and means of establishing many invasive species in the community.

State 4
Disturbed

Although to a much smaller extent than in lower elevations, there are areas that have been accessed for irrigation convenience ditches or were part of a homestead. These areas have remnants of introduced species from haylands or have been left to recover and may be in varying stages of succession. There are areas that are heavily impacted by recreational vehicles, parking, trails, roadways, or other land disturbances that have reduced or removed most native perennial vegetation and left a highly disturbed land.

The Disturbed State could be drafted as a stand-alone box within the state and transition model diagram. No matter what state a site originally is ranked in, once the site is mechanically disturbed, or suffers a catastrophic or significant natural disaster that alters the soil properties (erosional, depositional, or chemical), the site potential is altered. The most prominent shift for this site tends to be a shift in the natural hydrology that is key to this site. This can include both the loss of or enhancement to the additional moisture to the site (seepage from irrigation ditches).

Mechanical disturbances and reclamation practices using non-native species could qualify some stages of this state to be considered as a land use shift. The result is the shift in potential and response in management so that it is no longer similar to the reference community. The potential shifts are highly variable, so a dynamic state was captured to highlight the altered communities that exist on the landscape.

Characteristics and indicators. The soil disturbance and mechanical or physical removal of the vegetative canopy is the key characteristic of the Disturbed State. The initial indicators are the primary successional species that establish following a disturbance including Russian thistle, kochia, and sunflowers. These initial colonizers will then be followed by any seeded species, or other species from within the locations seed bank.

Resilience management. The Disturbed State is highly variable and in a state of flux as the successional processes occur. Continued disturbance of these communities is a potential threat; and the communities are at high risk of transitioning to the Invaded State.

Community 4.1
Disturbed Lands

The title Disturbed Lands is encompassing two broad classifications of these land types. Go-back fields or tilled areas form Type one. The soils were once cultivated or were impacted by cultivation pracites and have since been left to natural processes. Homestead and abandoned farming sites can be identified on the landscape (through photo-tone shifts in aerial photographs) and are generally a mix of natives and introduced herbaceous species as well as trees. Cottonwood breaks, Russian Olive, and other species of trees on these sites are key markers of old homestead locations. These sites are generally isolated or small in nature and are difficult to reclaim due to the introduced species that persist on the landscape and the shift in hydrology. If reclaimed, they do not respond to the natural disturbance regimes in the same manner that a native, mechanically undisturbed site would respond. The Saline Lowland ecological site was incidental to disturbance by homesteading or irrigation processes. The extent of this type is limited on the landscape.

A subset of Type one are those areas that were or currently are being impacted by recreation - camp sites, trails, parking areas, roadways. The varying stages of healing once abandoned, or the level and age of disturbance at each location leave a variable community.

In a similar process, lands affected by energy development including transmission and transportation corridors provide a host of successional processes. Many times, these locations are re-exposed to disturbance frequently by mechanical means leaving annual weeds and primary successional species as the dominate canopy. Older, established sites or abandoned locations, have established communities similar to those expected on go-back fields and may be stable in nature.

The growth curve of this plant community will vary depending on the species that are selected for seeding. For a more accurate portrait of the growth curve for the seeded community, the species used and the climatic tendencies of the region must be considered.

Resilience management. The plant community is variable and depending on the age of the stand and the stage of successional tendencies that the location is in will determine how stable (resilient/resistant) the community is. Plant diversity is generally strong, but is usually lacking in the structural and functional groups that are desired on the site. Soil erosion is variable depending on the disturbance regime that is occurring on the site and will vary with the specific community that has established on a specific location. Site-specific evaluation is needed to determine the water flow and pedestalling as well as infiltration and runoff potential and associated risks for each community.

Community 4.2
Reclaimed Lands

Shifts in reclamation practices over the last several decades have altered the success and stability of reclaiming a site. Crested wheatgrass and smooth brome were species used frequently for reclamation throughout Wyoming; and across the state, many of these communities persist today. These stands are stable and generally persist as a monoculture until a disturbance creates a niche for native species to establish. Russian wildrye and varieties of rhizomatous and bunch-wheatgrasses are used in mixes to help increase establishment on many locations.

Policies on federal lands, especially on forest lands, limits the use of non-native species and further limits where seed sources must be collected for use on these lands. Current interpretations of reclamation specifies the source of viable seed and the mix acceptable to achieve a composition as close to a natural (pre-disturbance) plant community as possible. This excludes the use of non-native species and allows for a more similar ecological response than what is expected with non- native species. These plantings will not replicate the reference community in response to management due to the change in soil dynamics with mechanical disturbance (seedbed preparation and seeding), but they may be similar.

The growth curve of this plant community is generally species dependent, but the climatic limitations are the major driver of this system. The short growing season with persistant snow cover through early fall to late spring and delayed warm up are the limitations to seedling establishment. For non-typical seed mixes and for project specific scenarios, the species used and the climatic tendencies of the site must be considered, and appropriate adjustments made to the growth curve provided below.

Resilience management. Seeding mixtures will determine the plant community's resistance to change and resilience against the threat of invasive species and to erosion. Many of the stands established during seeding are diversity poor, but are better than monocultures that were seeded historically. Soil erosion is variable depending on the establishment of the seeding, how it is seeded, and mechanical procedures put in place. The variability of the water flow and pedestaling as well as infiltration and runoff is determined again by the species that comprise the community and the method of seeding (site preparation and seeding practice).

Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2

Reclamation processes are necessary to shift a disturbed community back to a representative or functional plant community. Reclamation may include soil/dirt work to rebuild the soil profile (replace topsoil, land shaping, spoil placement), as well as re-seeding, integrated pest management, and long-term prescribed grazing or other managed use of the landscape. However, climatic variability and topography limits the success of seeding projects (accessibility by equipment, lack of suitable seed sources, limited growing season, and timing of precipitation). Proper preparation of a location to be seeded or once a site is seeded, integrated pest management becomes crucial to allow seedling establishment and to prevent undesirable species from invading the area. Brush management may be required to accommodate some areas to readily be seeded.

Context dependence.The existing plant community and the disturbance that led to the need for reclamation are factors influencing what preparations are necessary to begin the reclamation process and also determine the feasibility of restoring the desired community.

Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1

If a reclaimed or restored site is not maintained or managed for the species implemented, the community will degrade over time. Non-use or lack of a disturbance regime to maintain function of the system can lead to a softening of the soils, loss of herbaceous cover, and increases erosion potential. In the same, over-use of the system by livestock or wildlife can also shift the composition or revert the site back to a degraded phase. The initial establishment phase of a reclaimed site is crucial to determine success, but at any stage of a seeding, degradation or further disturbance can occur forcing the site to phase back to the disturbed community.

Context dependence.Since the soils are altered from reference state due to seed-bed preparation, or mechanical disturbances associated with road/site development, mining, or other human activities, the plant community will not follow the same expected shifts as the native community. Monitoring and trend over time need to be recorded to determine if a location is degrading or adjusting with the climatic variables of the site.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Significant soil disturbance, extended periods of drought or loss of hydrology will impact the herbaceous species creating a shrub and bare ground dominated community.

Constraints to recovery.The saline soils are limiting to seedling establishment. Outside of the harsh nature of the soils, if alteration or loss of hydrology is the cause of this shift, there may be constraints to returning this natural hydrologic cycle.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Fire, Drought, Ground Disturbance, Over Use - Once a community has been compromised by stress or ground disturbance of any means, can cause the invasive species to take over and dominate the site. Wildfire, extreme drought and the accompanying disease and insect damage, as well as frequent and intense use by large herbivores are the impacts most commonly seen to insight a weed infestation. Any action that reduces or damages the existing brush canopy exposing the sensitive native grass population will start the transition. Drought, further disturbance or ill-planned grazing (grazing when the natives are trying to break boot and grow), will remove the competition and finish the transition.

Constraints to recovery.The ability to control or eradicate most invasive species is difficult, costly, and time consuming. Complete eradication may not be possible, especially with the non-native tame species. Control of these species is currently in trial stages in other regions of the United States with varying successes.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

An abrupt or catastrophic disturbance will remove or significantly impact the native community and the soil structure, leaving a disturbed and barren site. Repeated disturbances over time will weaken a community leading to this transition as well.With time, natural succession will begin the recovery process. However, the soil as well as hydrologic function has been altered in many cases, leaving a Disturbed State.

Constraints to recovery.The inability to restore hydrology or to replace soil stability in function (in the scope of significant head cuts or gullying) limits the recovery potential after significant disturbance.

Context dependence.Reclamation or restoration of the reference community is a challenge due to limitations of seed sources. Many of the species that are common in this community are established by sprig plantings only. Seedbed or site preparation is limited by the wetness of the soil, depth to water table and the soil textures. Access to these sites with equipment is difficult if not impossible for a large portion of the year.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Over an extended period of time, prescribed grazing with rest as well as brush management and possibly seeding in areas where seed sources or replacement materials are lacking, will help to restore this community back towards reference.

Context dependence.Removal or improvement of the disturbances that caused this transition are necessary. Loss of hydrology or natural flooding cycles will create a major disturbance or stress on a community and may restrict the recovery potential.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Frequent and Severe grazing plus encroachment will convert this plant community to an Invaded State. Grazing reduces the vigor and cover of native cover, allowing aggressive non-native species to creep into a community. Soil disturbance and increased activity (by livestock, wildlife, or human) provide a seed source for invaders to establish.

Constraints to recovery.The aggressive nature of invader species limits the ability for a community to overcome their establishment. In many cases, control or removal has not been completed successfully without complete manipulation.

Context dependence.The presence of greasewood in the community will hinder the practices that are suited for vegetation treatments. Fire and mechanical disturbances to the surface vegetation will encourage the sprouting capabilities of greasewood and could compound the situation in some instances. The moisture content of the soil, water table depth, and extent of salt load may restrict access to treat the soils or to manipulate the vegetation on some locations.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

Fire, Drought, Ground Disturbance, Over Use - Once a community has been compromised by a notable composition of an invasive species, stress or ground disturbance of any means can cause the invasive species to take over and dominate the site. Wildfire, extreme drought and the accompanying disease and insect damage, as well as frequent and intense use by large herbivores are the impacts most commonly seen to insight a weed infestation. Any action that reduces or damages the existing brush canopy exposing the sensitive native grass population will start the transition. Drought, further disturbance or ill-planned grazing (grazing when the natives are trying to break boot and grow), will remove the competition and finish the transition.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 4

Once a site has transitioned to the Invaded State, the composition of tame and invasive species limits the ability to restore the community without major inputs into the system. Site preparation and seeding with intensive weed and integrated pest management is required. Seeding of both herbaceous as well as woody species may be required depending on the extent of alteration the site has seen. The soil preparation for seeding will affect the response to management and natural disturbances due to the mixing and alteration of the soil profile. Once the community is established, grazing management to maintain this community as well as control of other disturbances is required.

Context dependence.The inability to effectively eradicate the undesirable species is the known limitation or constraint to this site recovering. Seed availability and establishment rates are also considerations needed when looking at the scope of this process.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 3

The increased bare ground and weakened plant structure of the Disturbed State leaves the community susceptible to encroachment or species creep by non-native species such as Kentucky bluegrass, creeping meadow foxtail, and redtop. Thistles, toadflax, and houndstounge are quickly becoming significant problems on areas within these weakened plant communities. Increasing bare ground and weakening plant community structure leaves the community vulnerable to invader species such as toadflax and houndstongue.

Constraints to recovery.The inability to effectively eradicate the undesirable species is the known financially limiting constraint to this site recovering. Most invader species are prolific and aggressive, complicating the ability to effectively remove them from the community.