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Ecological site F003XN940WA
Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Riparian Forest
Last updated: 1/30/2025
Accessed: 08/31/2026
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Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 003X–Olympic and Cascade Mountains
Steep mountains and narrow to broad, gently sloping valleys characterize this MLRA. A triple junction of two oceanic plates and one continental plate is directly offshore from Puget Sound. Subduction of the oceanic plates under the westerly and northwesterly moving continental plate contributes to volcanic activity in the Cascade Mountains. Movement among these plates has resulted in major earthquakes and the formation of large stratovolcanoes. The Cascade Mountains consist primarily of volcanic crystalline rock and some associated metasedimentary rock. The mean annual precipitation is dominantly 60 to 100 inches, but it is 30 to 60 inches on the east side of the Cascade Mountains.
The soil orders in this MLRA are dominantly Andisols, Spodosols, and Inceptisols and minor areas of Entisols and Histosols. The soils are dominantly in the frigid or cryic temperature regime and the udic moisture regime. The soils generally are shallow to very deep, well drained, ashy to medial, and loamy or sandy. They are on mountain slopes and ridges.Ecological site concept
This ecological site is on the flat, historic flood plains and terraces of river valleys. The soils that support this site have a seasonal high water table. Riparian ecological sites typically differ in topography, vegetation, geomorphology, and microclimate from areas of the surrounding uplands that support forest ecosystems (Dwire, 2003).
The most common natural disturbance is flooding. The volume and longevity of the flooding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest.
The soils are in the frigid soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They formed in alluvium derived from andesite mixed with volcanic ash. Growth of the forest is not limited by soil moisture because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash.
Black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) are the most common overstory species. Western redcedar (Thuja plicata), red alder (Alnus rubra), bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), grand fir (Abies grandis), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) are present. During longer periods between major floods, conifers establish and the overstory becomes more diverse. With the absence of disturbance, it is expected that the maturation and succession of the vegetation will result in an old-growth conifer forest.Associated sites
F003XN944WA Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Riparian Forest
Both ecological sites F003XN944WA and F003XN940WA are influenced by flood dynamics and have similar disturbance patterns; however, elevation distinguishes the sites. Ecological site F003XN940WA is at an elevation of 1,600 to 2,100 feet, and site F003XN944WA is at an elevation of more than 2,100 feet. Site F003XN944WA supports species more common at higher elevations, such as Pacific silver fir. The productivity of the forest on site F003XN940WA is higher as a result of the longer growing season, warmer temperatures, and reduced snowpack.
Similar sites
F003XN943WA Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Coniferous Forest
Ecological site F003XN940WA, Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Riparian Forest, is similar to site F003XN943WA, Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Coniferous Forest. Site F003XN940WA is in an earlier forest successional stage because of frequent disturbance. It is expected that over a long period of time without disturbance, ecological site F003XN940WA will mature to resemble site F003XN943WA.
Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree (1) Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa
(2) Tsuga heterophyllaShrub (1) Mahonia nervosa
Herbaceous (1) Goodyera oblongifolia
Physiographic features
This ecological site is on flood plains and terraces of river valleys (elevation 1,600 to 2,100 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. Slope commonly is 0 to 10 percent.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms (1) River valley > Flood plain
(2) River valley > Terrace
Flooding frequency None to rare Ponding frequency None Elevation 1600 – 2100 ft Slope 0 – 10 % Water table depth 20 – 70 in Aspect W, NW, N, NE, E, SE, S, SW Climatic features
Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through March. The mean annual precipitation is 75 to 84 inches, and the annual air temperature is 32 to 60 degrees F. Generally, the summers are temperate and dry and the winters are cool and wet.
Table 3 Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) 80-130 days Freeze-free period (characteristic range) Precipitation total (characteristic range) 80-80 in BarLineFigure 1. Monthly precipitation range
BarLineFigure 2. Monthly minimum temperature range
">Influencing water features
This site is at low elevations on terraces and flood plains in Mount Rainier National Park. The site is not subject to ponding. Flooding is rare; however, 100- or 500-year floods may dramatically alter the landscape. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.
Soil features
Applicable soils: Carbon, Comet
Applicable soil map units in Mount Rainier National Park: 6100, 6101
The soils that support this ecological site are in the frigid soil temperature regime and udic soil moisture regime. The Carbon soils are moderately well drained, and the Comet soils are somewhat excessively drained. Both soils are very deep. The soils are on flood plains and terraces of river valleys. They formed in alluvium derived from andesite mixed with volcanic ash. The Carbon soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 20 to 40 inches at some time during the growing season. Both soils are subject to rare periods of flooding in April, May, October, and November. The Comet soils have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the control section. The soils are coarse textured and are primarily ashy loamy sand and ashy sandy loam. Podsolization in not evident because of the relatively young age of the soils. The soils have an umbric epipedon and may have a cambic horizon. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.Table 4. Representative soil features
Parent material (1) Alluvium – andesite
(2) Volcanic ash
Surface texture (1) Very gravelly, ashy sandy loam
(2) Very cobbly, ashy loamy coarse sand
(3) Extremely gravelly, ashy loamy sand
Drainage class Moderately well drained to somewhat excessively drained Soil depth 60 in Surface fragment cover <=3" 15 – 60 % Surface fragment cover >3" 0 – 30 % Available water capacity
(Depth not specified)2.9 – 6.1 in Soil reaction (1:1 water)
(Depth not specified)5.1 – 6 Subsurface fragment volume <=3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 55 % Subsurface fragment volume >3"
(Depth not specified)0 – 60 % Ecological dynamics
This ecological site is on flat, historic flood plains and terraces along rivers. The soils have a seasonal high water table. Riparian ecological sites typically differ in topography, vegetation, geomorphology, and microclimate from the surrounding uplands that support forest ecosystems (Dwire, 2003). The frequency of flooding is rare; however, the volume and longevity of the flooding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest. Small, frequent periods of peak flow do not tend to impact the flow of the channels, but they commonly transport a considerable amount of sediment. Extreme rain-on-snow flooding and debris flows can alter the stream channels through incision or aggradation and remove existing vegetation along the flood plain, resulting in a stand-replacing event (Czuba, 2012).
Black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) are the most common overstory species. Western redcedar (Thuja plicata), red alder (Alnus rubra), bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), grand fir (Abies grandis), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) are present. Black cottonwood and red alder germinate most successfully on the bare mineral soil scoured by flooding.
The understory commonly is shrubby. It includes Cascade Oregon grape (Mahonia nervosa), vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus). Scattered areas of western rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), Canadian wildginger (Asarum caudatum), western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), queencup beadlily (Clintonia uniflora), starry false lily of the valley (Maianthemum stellatum), and western swordfern (Polystichum munitum) are present. The shrubs may be less dense in the more flood-prone areas, allowing more light to reach the forest floor.
Location on the landscape is the most important factor determining species composition. Conifers are prevalent on the terraces and adjacent hillsides, and deciduous species are on the active flood plains that are subject to more frequent fluvial disturbances (Villarian, 2009). During longer periods between major floods, conifers establish and the overstory becomes more diverse. With the absence of disturbance, it is expected that the maturation and succession of the vegetation will result in an old growth conifer forest.State and transition model
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Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective textEcosystem states
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 1
ReferenceCommunity 1.1
Black Cottonwood, Western Hemlock, Cascade Oregon Grape, and Western Rattlesnake Plantain
Structure: Mature deciduous forest with a mix of shrubs and conifer regeneration in the understory
Black cottonwood is the dominant overstory species. Red alder commonly makes up a higher percentage of the species composition, but the black cottonwood trees typically are 20 to 50 feet taller than the red alder trees. Black cottonwood trees live longer (as long as 200 years) than red alder trees, which start to actively decline after 60 to 80 years. Western hemlock typically is just outside the active flood plain, and it becomes widely established in the forest canopy (Villarin, 2009). The reference community represents a lack of major flooding for at least 100 years, which allows the pioneering deciduous species to form a mature canopy and the secondary coniferous species, such as western redcedar and western hemlock, to seed underneath. The lack of flooding also allows for vigorous growth of understory shrubs, including vine maple, Cascade Oregon grape, and baldhip rose. Common disturbances include small gap dynamics (openings of 1/2 acre or smaller) following the decline of red alder and minor scouring from flooding.
Community Phase Pathway 1.1A - This pathway is represents minor disturbances that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. The mortality of some trees creates gaps in the understory, allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor. This promotes growth of forbs and shrubs and regeneration of overstory species. Soil deposition following minor scouring from flooding temporarily affects the understory vegetation, but it does not alter the composition of the overstory vegetation.Forest overstory.Western redcedar is dominant in the forest canopy cover, and Douglas-fir, red alder, and black cottonwood are subcomponents. The forest has multiple layers. The upper canopy ranges from 100 to 175 feet in height, and the average is 105 feet. Black cottonwood is the tallest tree in the reference community. The diameter of the trees varies depending on species, but the average diameter at breast height is 21 inches. Deciduous trees are dominant, and they make up the highest basal area along the flood plains. The basal area of conifers is higher on terraces and hillslopes (Villarian, 2009).
Forest understory. The understory composition varies depending on the overstory and the competition for moisture. Overall cover of shrubs such as vine maple and Cascade Oregon grape is 10 to 15 percent in the reference community. Overall cover of forbs such as vanillaleaf, western rattlesnake plantain, and Oregon oxalis is as much as 40 percent. Overall cover of western swordfern is as much as 55 percent in some areas.
Dominant plant species
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black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa), tree
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western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), tree
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red alder (Alnus rubra), tree
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western redcedar (Thuja plicata), tree
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bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), tree
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grand fir (Abies grandis), tree
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Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), tree
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Cascade barberry (Mahonia nervosa), shrub
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vine maple (Acer circinatum), shrub
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salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), shrub
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devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), shrub
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dwarf rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), shrub
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western rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), other herbaceous
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common ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), other herbaceous
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Canadian wildginger (Asarum canadense), other herbaceous
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western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), other herbaceous
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bride's bonnet (Clintonia uniflora), other herbaceous
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starry false lily of the valley (Maianthemum stellatum), other herbaceous
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western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), other herbaceous
Community 1.2
Black Cottonwood, Red Alder, Vine Maple, and Common Ladyfern
Structure: Single story/shrub
Community phase 1.2 represents a riparian forest that is undergoing regeneration or stand initiation. Scattered remnant mature trees are in some areas. Successful regeneration is dependent on a local seed source, an adequate seedbed, and sufficient light and water (Nierenberg, 2000). Black cottonwood, red alder, and vine maple are the pioneering early seral species that become established first after a major disturbance. These deciduous species establish quicker than do conifers. Red alder fixes nitrogen in the soil on flood plains, which provides an early competitive advantage (Villarin, 2009). Seeds of deciduous species are light and can be transported long distances by wind and water, allowing for rapid recolonization. Most of the common shrubs, such as vine maple and baldhip rose, can readily regenerate by sprouting from the root crown that has been buried by flood deposits. The shrubs compete with seedlings and saplings until the tree species overtop them. A major disturbance allows seral forb species, such as western swordfern and Oregon oxalis, to become established.Dominant plant species
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black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa), tree
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red alder (Alnus rubra), tree
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vine maple (Acer circinatum), shrub
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dwarf rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), shrub
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western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), other herbaceous
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redwood-sorrel (Oxalis oregana), other herbaceous
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common ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), other herbaceous
Community 1.3
Black Cottonwood, Western Redcedar, Vine Maple, Common Ladyfern, and Western Rattlesnake Plantain
Structure: Dense single story with diminished understory
Community phase 1.3 is a forest in the competitive exclusion stage. Scattered remnant mature trees are in some areas. Individual trees compete for available water and nutrients. Red alder trees begin to die 40 to 70 years after a disturbance, which allows more light to penetrate the nitrogen-rich soils (Naiman, 2009). As a result, conifer species become more dominant in this community phase. Downed logs are important for conifer establishment (Villarian, 2009). Canopy closure is nearly 100 percent, which leads to diminished understory. Some understory species that are better adapted to shade, such as vine maple, remain in the community. The shrub community decreases in areas farther from the flood plain, leading to a closed canopy forest (Villarian, 2009). If red alder is present, it can be inferred that frequent minor flooding has influenced the dynamics of the site (Nierenberg, 2000). Over time, the forest thins as a result of competition and a decrease in species that are not tolerant of shade.Dominant plant species
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black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa), tree
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western redcedar (Thuja plicata), tree
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red alder (Alnus rubra), tree
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Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), tree
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vine maple (Acer circinatum), shrub
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Cascade barberry (Mahonia nervosa), shrub
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common ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), other herbaceous
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western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), other herbaceous
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western rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), other herbaceous
Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Black Cottonwood, Western Hemlock, Cascade Oregon Grape, and Western Rattlesnake Plantain
Black Cottonwood, Red Alder, Vine Maple, and Common LadyfernThis pathway represents a major 100- or 500-year flood that scours the stream channel, removes understory and overstory vegetation, and may alter the streamflow. This disturbance may completely reconfigure the sediment and reduce or eliminate the forest overstory.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.3
Black Cottonwood, Red Alder, Vine Maple, and Common Ladyfern
Black Cottonwood, Western Redcedar, Vine Maple, Common Ladyfern, and Western Rattlesnake PlantainThis pathway represents growth over time with no further significant disturbance. The areas of regeneration go through the typical phases of stands, including competitive exclusion, maturation, and understory reinitiation, until they resemble the old-growth structure of the reference community.
Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.1
Black Cottonwood, Western Redcedar, Vine Maple, Common Ladyfern, and Western Rattlesnake Plantain
Black Cottonwood, Western Hemlock, Cascade Oregon Grape, and Western Rattlesnake PlantainThis pathway represents an area with no further major disturbance. Continued growth over time and ongoing mortality lead to increased vertical diversification. The community begins to resemble the structure of the reference community. It has small pockets of regeneration (both deciduous and coniferous) and a more diversified understory.
Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2
Black Cottonwood, Western Redcedar, Vine Maple, Common Ladyfern, and Western Rattlesnake Plantain
Black Cottonwood, Red Alder, Vine Maple, and Common LadyfernThis pathway represents a major 100- or 500-year flood that scours the stream channel, removes understory and overstory vegetation, and may alter the streamflow. This disturbance may completely reconfigure the sediment and dramatically reduce or eliminate the forest overstory.
State 2
UndisturbedCommunity 2.1
Western Hemlock, Douglas-fir, Salal, and Cascade Oregon Grape
Structure: Multistory with small gap dynamics
Transition State 2 represents a mature old-growth forest that has been undisturbed by major flooding. Western hemlock is the most common overstory species. It is shade tolerant and has the ability to release quickly following extended periods of suppression (Packee, 1990). Douglas-fir and western redcedar are present, but Douglas-fir regeneration is minimal because of the closed canopy. Red alder and Pacific yew are minor components of the overstory, but they commonly become established in areas that have been disturbed and receive more sunlight. The dense canopy created by multiple age groups of hemlock may block most of the sunlight from the forest floor, leading to sparse understory in some areas. Dense clumps of vine maple also block the sunlight. Most of the understory is in areas that have gaps in the mid-canopy and overstory that allow sunlight to reach the ground. The understory is continuous in areas that do not have a mid-canopy. The most common natural disturbance on this site is the small gap dynamics following the mortality of one or two trees.Dominant plant species
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western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), tree
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Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), tree
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western redcedar (Thuja plicata), tree
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Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), tree
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red alder (Alnus rubra), tree
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salal (Gaultheria shallon), shrub
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Cascade barberry (Mahonia nervosa), shrub
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2This pathway represents long-term growth uninhibited by natural disturbances, such as a 100-year flood. Deciduous overstory species are nearly absent, and the plant community shifts to an old-growth conifer forest.
Transition T2A
State 2 to 1This pathway represents an area affected by major flooding, leading to the stand initiation phase of development.
Additional community tables
Table 5. Community 1.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 6. Community 1.1 forest overstory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height ft Canopy cover (%) Diameter in Basal area (square ft/acre) Treewestern hemlock TSHE Tsuga heterophylla Native – – – 0 western redcedar THPL Thuja plicata Native – – – 0 Douglas-fir PSME Pseudotsuga menziesii Native – – – 0 black cottonwood POBAT Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa Native – – – 0 red alder ALRU2 Alnus rubra Native – – – 0 Table 7. Community 1.1 forest understory composition
Common name Symbol Scientific name Nativity Height (ft) Canopy cover (%) Forb/Herbredwood-sorrel OXOR Oxalis oregana Native 0–6 0–50 sweet after death ACTR Achlys triphylla Native 1–12 0–20 western rattlesnake plantain GOOB2 Goodyera oblongifolia Native 1–6 0–5 Fern/fern allywestern swordfern POMU Polystichum munitum Native 12–48 0–55 Shrub/SubshrubCascade barberry MANE2 Mahonia nervosa Native 6–24 10–35 vine maple ACCI Acer circinatum Native 24–360 15–25 dwarf rose ROGY Rosa gymnocarpa Native 0–6 0–5 Table 8. Community 1.2 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 9. Community 1.3 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Table 10. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group Common name Symbol Scientific name Annual production () Foliar cover (%) Interpretations
Table 11. Representative site productivity
Common name Symbol Site index low Site index high CMAI low CMAI high Age of CMAI Site index curve code Site index curve basis Citation Douglas-fir PSME 185 – 195 – 60 – – Supporting information
Inventory data references
Other Established Classifications U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: TSHE/GASH-BENE U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: POPBAL/GAUSHA/POLMUN, PSUMEN-TSUHET/GAUSHA/POLMUN
Type locality
Location 1: Pierce County, WA Township/Range/Section T15N R07E S34 Latitude 46° 44′ 27″ Longitude 121° 34′ 5″ Other references
Barnes, George H. 1962. Yield of even-aged stands of western hemlock. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 1273.
Crawford, R.C., C.B. Chappell, C.C. Thompson, and F.J. Rocchio. 2009. Vegetation classification of Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NCCN/NRTR-2009/211. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.
Czuba, J., C. Magirl, C. Czuba, C. Curran, K. Johnson, T. Olsen, H. Kimball, and C. Gish. 2012. Geomorphic analysis of the river response to sedimentation downstream of Mount Rainier, Washington. U.S. Geological Survey Open-file Report 2012-1242. Reston, Virginia.
Dwire, K., and J. Kauffman. 2003. Fire and riparian ecosystems in landscapes in the western United States. Forest Ecology and Management. Volume 178, pages 61-74.
Goheen, E.M., and E.A. Willhite. 2006. Field guide to common diseases and insect pests of Oregon and Washington conifers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region R6-NR-FID-PR-01-06.
Hanley, D.P., and D.M. Baumgartner. 2002. Forest ecology in Washington. Washington State University Cooperative Extension Technical Report EB 1943.
Hanson, E.J., D.L. Azuma, and B.A. Hiserote. 2002. Site index equations and mean annual increment equations for Pacific Northwest Research Station forest inventory and analysis inventories, 1985-2001. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Research Note PNW-RN-533.
Hemstrom, M., and J. Franklin. 1982. Fire and other disturbances of the forests in Mount Rainier National Park. Quaternary Research. Volume 18, pages 32-61.
Henderson, J.A., R.D. Lesher, D.H. Peter, and D.C. Shaw. 1992. Field guide to the forested plant associations of the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region Technical Paper R6-ECOL-TP-028-91.
King, James E. 1966. Site index curves for Douglas-fir in the Pacific Northwest. Weyerhaeuser Company, Forestry Research Center Forestry Paper 8.
Kittel, G., D. Meidinger, and D. Faber-Langendoen. 2015. G240 Pseudotsuga menziesii-Tsuga heterophylla/Gaultheria shallon forest group. United States National Vegetation Classification. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee, Washington, D.C.
Means, J.E. 1990. Tsuga mertensiana. In Silvics of North America: Volume 1. Conifers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 654. Pages 623-634. https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654_vol1.pdf
Naiman, R., S. Bechtold, T. Beechie, J. Latterell, and R. Van Pelt. 2009. A process-based view of floodplain forest patterns in coastal river valleys of the Pacific Northwest. Ecosystems. Volume 13, pages 1-31.
Nierenberg, T., and D. Hibbs. 2000. A characterization of unmanaged riparian areas in the central Coast Range of western Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management. Volume 129, pages 195-206.
Packee, E.C. 1990. Tsuga heterophylla. In Silvics of North America: Volume 1. Conifers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 654. Pages 613-622. https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654_vol1.pdf
Pojar, J., and A. MacKinnon. 1994. Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Lone Pine, Vancouver, British Columbia.
PRISM Climate Group. Oregon State University. Accessed February 2015. http://prism.oregonstate.edu
Rochefort, R.M., and D.L. Peterson. 1996. Temporal and spatial distribution of trees in subalpine meadows of Mount Rainier National Park. Arctic and Alpine Research. Volume 28, number 1, pages 52-59.
Seastedt, T.R., and G.A. Adams. 2001. Effects of mobile tree islands on alpine tundra soils. Ecology. Volume 82, pages 8-17. Scientia Silvica. 1997. Regeneration patterns in the mountain hemlock zone. Extension Series, Number 6.
Smith, K., G. Kuhn, and L. Townsend. 2008. Culmination of mean annual increment for indicator tree species in the State of Washington. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Technical Note Forestry-9.
Tesky, J.L. 1992. Tsuga mertensiana. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tsumer/all.html
Topik, C., N.M. Halverson, and D.G. Brockway. 1986. Plant associations and management guide for the western hemlock zone, Gifford Pinchot National Forest. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region Technical Paper R6-ECOL-230A-1986.
United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1990. Silvics of North America. Agriculture Handbook 654. https://www.fs.usda.gov/naspf/
United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. 2014. Ecological site descriptions for North Cascades National Park Complex, Washington.
United States National Vegetation Classification. 2016. United States national vegetation classification database, V2.0. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee, Washington, D.C. Accessed November 28, 2016.
Villarin, L., D. Chapin, and J. Jones. 2009. Riparian forest structure and succession in second-growth stands of the central Cascade Mountains, Washington, USA. Forest Ecology and Management. Volume 257, pages 1375-1385.Contributors
Erin Kreutz
Erik Dahlke
Philip RobertsApproval
Kirt Walstad, 1/30/2025
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) Contact for lead author Date 05/10/2024 Approved by Approval date Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on Annual Production Indicators
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Number and extent of rills:
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Presence of water flow patterns:
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Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
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Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
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Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
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Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
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Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
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Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
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Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
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Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
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Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
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Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
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Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
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Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
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Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
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Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
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Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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